I. Introduction
Developing countries became entangled in Cold War diplomacy because both America and the Soviet Union wanted them as allies. The Third World altered the bipolar nature of the Cold War.
II. Kennedy’s Nation Building, Arms Buildup, and the Cuban Missile Crisis
A. Nation Building and Counterinsurgency
Based on the concept of nation building, the Kennedy administration initiated aid programs to help developing nations through the early states of nationhood. The concept of counterinsurgency was the tactic used to defeat revolutionaries in Third World countries friendly to the United States.
B. Military Expansion
John Kennedy vowed to improve the military, and his “flexible response” sought ways to fight any kind of war.
C. Berlin Wall
Kennedy rejected Soviet demands concerning Berlin, and he vowed to defend West Berlin. The Soviets responded by building the Berlin Wall to stop the flow of Eastern Germans into the more prosperous Western zone.
D. Bay of Pigs Invasion
Kennedy inherited the Bay of Pigs invasion plan, but he ordered that no Americans be directly involved. The April 1961 invasion was a disaster.
E. Cuban Missile Crisis
Russia provided military assistance to Cuba and placed nuclear missiles on the island. Discovery of these missiles in 1962 sparked a frightening episode of brinkmanship.
F. Kennedy’s Handling of the Crisis
Critics assert that Kennedy courted disaster in the way in which he handled the crisis.
G. Aftermath
The crisis led to some easing of Soviet?American tensions. However, the Soviet pledge to catch up in the nuclear arms race increased tensions.
III. Johnson and Americanization of the War in Vietnam
A. Nuclear Proliferation Treaty
Johnson signed a non?proliferation treaty in 1968, but Vietnam meant that Cold War tensions would continue.
B. Kennedy’s Legacy in Vietnam
Kennedy sent more than 16,000 advisors to Vietnam. Diem created problems because of his oppressive policies and his persecution of Buddhists. The CIA urged South Vietnamese officers to overthrow Diem, and they murdered him in 1963.
C. Tonkin Gulf Incident
Despite flimsy evidence of attacks on American ships, in 1964 Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution giving Lyndon Johnson authority to wage war on North Vietnam.
D. Bombing Campaigns in Laos and Vietnam
In 1964 stepped-up bombing of Laos. After the Vietcong attacked the American airfield at Pleiku, Johnson ordered Operation Rolling Thunder against North Vietnam.
E. Troop Strength
Johnson decided to increase U.S. ground forces in Vietnam in July 1965. U.S. troop strength peaked in 1969 at 543,400.
IV. Vietnam: Escalation, Carnage, and Protest
A. My Lai Massacre
A gruesome atrocity occurred at the village of My Lai, where Americans killed some 500 civilians.
B. American Soldiers in Vietnam
Many Americans in Vietnam just tried to survive their tours of duty in a brutal and inhospitable environment.
C. Growing Antiwar Sentiment
Protests at home grew along with the military escalation in Vietnam, but Johnson vowed to continue the war.
D. McNamara’s Doubts
McNamara became convinced that continued bombing would not win the war.
E. Tet Offensive
The Vietcong and North Vietnamese offensive in 1968 ended in an American victory, but many people came to believe that the war could not be won.
F. Dollar/Gold Crisis
Rampant deficit spending to finance the war caused Europeans to redeem dollars for gold, providing further pressure on the Johnson Administration to end the war.
G. Johnson’s Exit
On March 31, 1968, Johnson announced a halt to the bombing of most of North Vietnam, asked Hanoi to begin negotiations to end the war, and announced that he would not run for reelection.
V. Nixon, Vietnamization, and the Impact of America’s Longest War
A. Invasion of Cambodia
Richard Nixon announced that the United States would help those nations that helped themselves. In Southeast Asia this doctrine meant “Vietnamization” of the war by replacing Americans with South Vietnamese troops. In 1970 Nixon announced that American and South Vietnamese forces had entered Cambodia. This action sparked violent protests in the United States.
B. Cease?Fire Agreement
In 1973, America and North Vietnam agreed to withdraw American troops, return POWs, account for MIAs, and recognize a role for the Vietcong in South Vietnam.
C. Costs of the Vietnam War
More than 58,000 Americans and a million and a half Vietnamese died in the war. The conflict cost the United States almost 200 billion dollars, and it delayed improved relations with other nations.
D. Debate over the Lessons of Vietnam
Hawks claimed the war taught that the military should be allowed a free hand; doves insisted that losing the war showed the dangers of an imperial presidency.
E. Vietnam Veterans
Post?traumatic stress disorder plagued thousands of veterans, causing them fears and anxiety.
VI. Nixon, Kissinger, and Détente
A. SALT
Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger sought détente that would recognize Soviet?American rivalry while creating cooperation through negotiations. The United States and the Soviets signed the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks treaties, which limited ABM systems for each nation to two sites and imposed a five?year freeze on the offensive missiles each side could possess.
B. Opening to China
Nixon extended détente to the People’s Republic of China, and he made a historic trip there in 1972.
C. War in the Middle East
When Egypt and Syria attacked Israel in 1973, OPEC stopped oil shipments in an effort to gain American support for the Arabs.
D. Chile
Nixon plotted covert actions against Salvador Allende, while continuing to deny it.
E. Containing Radicalism in Africa
Nixon viewed the white minority governments in Rhodesia and South Africa as bulwarks against communist inspired radicalism.
F. United States in the World Economy
American interventionism reflected a dependence on raw materials from abroad and the importance of foreign investments. Threats to investments, materials, and markets made intervention appear to be a viable option.
G. Economic Competition with Japan
Economic relations with Japan deteriorated as an influx of Japanese imports caused the United States to suffer from an unfavorable balance of trade.
H. International Environmental Issues
In 1972 the U.S. participated in a U.N.-sponsored environmental conference in Stockholm, Sweden.
VII. Carter, Preventive Diplomacy, and a Reinvigorated Cold War
A. Carter’s Divided Administration
Jimmy Carter suffered from indecision and from squabbles among members of his administration, hampering his attempts to advance human rights.
B. SALT?II
The SALT?II Treaty further limited nuclear weapons, but the treaty stalled when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan. In the Carter Doctrine, the President promised to defend the Persian Gulf militarily from any Soviet invasion.
C. Camp David Accords
Jimmy Carter helped ease tensions in the Middle East by negotiating an accord between Egypt and Israel.
D. Iranian Hostage Crisis
In 1979 Iranians stormed the embassy in Teheran and took a number of hostages. The United States unfroze Iranian assets and promised no further intervention in Iran in January 1981, and the hostages were released.
E. Panama Canal Treaties
Carter signed treaties with Panama that turned the Canal Zone over to Panama in the year 2000 and allowed the United States to defend the Canal Zone after that time.
VIII. The Ups and Downs of Reagan’s World
A. Law of the Sea Convention
The Reagan Doctrine announced that the United States would openly support all anti-Communist fighters. A supporter of free-market capitalism, Reagan rejected the 1982 United Nations’ Convention on the Law of the Sea, which dealt with offshore resources. Furthermore, Reagan believed an intensive military buildup would thwart the Soviet threat.
B. Intervention in El Salvador
Reagan considered the revolution in El Salvador a case of communist aggression, and, citing the domino theory, he persuaded Congress to fund the government there.
C. Contra War in Nicaragua
Reagan, afraid of Nicaragua as a Soviet client, worked to topple the Sandinista regime. The CIA trained rebels, mined Nicaraguan harbors, and blew up merchant ships.
D. Iran?Contra Scandal
The Reagan administration sold arms to Iran and sent the profits to anti?Sandinista forces, in violation of the law.
E. U.S. Interests in the Middle East
The troubled Middle East was strategically and economically important to the U.S.
F. Crisis in Lebanon
Reagan sent troops to Lebanon, where a terrorist attack killed 241 American servicemen in Beirut in 1983.
G. South Africa
Reagan struggled with South Africa’s racist policy of apartheid. Because of public pressure, Congress passed economic restrictions against South Africa in 1986.
H. Third World Indebtedness
Indebtedness of Third World nations caused economic instability and political unrest throughout the Third World, and had an adverse economic impact on the United States
I. Debate over Nuclear Weapons
Reagan’s search for nuclear superiority sparked a worldwide debate and appeals for a freeze in the nuclear arms race. Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev agreed that they should limit weapons but could not reach an accord because Reagan wanted the Strategic Defense Initiative.
J. Gorbachev’s Reforms
Gorbachev worked to modernize the Soviet economy and to liberalize the political system, which eased tensions.
