AP World History - Stearns
Chapter 1 – From Human Prehistory to the Early Civilizations

1. Introduction
   1. Human origin – 2.5 million years ago
      1. 1/4000 of earth’s existence – 24 hour day – last 5 minutes
   2. Human negatives and positives
      1. Aggressiveness, long baby time, back problems, death fears
      2. Grip, high/regular sex drive, omnivores, facial expressions, speech
   3. Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age –
   4. 5 million to 12000 BCE
      1. Simple tools – increase in size, brain capacity – Homo erectus
2. Late Paleolithic Developments
   1. Homo sapiens sapiens – 120,000 years ago – killed off others?
      1. Population growth required change – 1 square mile to hunt/gather for 2 people
         1. Long breast feeding – limit fertility
         2. Relative gender equality – women harder, but both contributed
      2. Rituals for death, explain environment, rules for social behavior
      3. Greatest achievement – spread over earth
         1. Fire/animal skin
         2. 14,000 Great ice age ended
      4. Tools – sharpen animal bones, rafts
      5. Domesticated animals
      6. Conflicts w/ others – bone breaks/skull fractures
   2. Knowledge based on cave paintings, tool remains, burial sites
3. Neolithic (New Stone) Age Revolution
   1. Agriculture changed everything – could support more people
      1. Settle one spot – focus on economic, political, religious goals
      2. 14,000-10,000 BCE – 6 million to 100 million people
   2. Causes of Agriculture
      1. Population increase – better climate
      2. Big game animals decreasing – hunting yield declined
      3. Gradual change – harvesting wild grains to planting seeds
   3. New animals domesticated – pigs, sheep, goats, cattle
      1. Meat, skins, dairy
      2. Advantage to Europe?
   4. Why Middle East?
      1. Water source, fertile area, not forested, lacked animals
   5. “Revolution” gradual – many combined changes w/ hunting gathering – 1000 years
   6. Effects
      1. Longer work week – labor intensive
      2. Build houses, villages
      3. Varied clothing
   7. Resistance – too complicated, boring, difficult
      1. Disease – those in villages developed immunity – nomads died off/joined
      2. Some isolated societies still avoid
         1. Harsh climate, no exchange of knowledge
         2. Tough, nomadic invaders
      3. Nomads – not that influential accept for interaction
   8. Changes
      1. Specialization
      2. Technology – control of nature – storage facilities, pottery
      3. Metal tools – Bronze Age 3000 – Iron Age 1500 BCE
4. Civilization
   1. Hunter/gatherer – no bigger than 60 – food runs out
      1. Other options – slash and burn
      2. Tribal bands – strong kinship – relatively small
   2. Benefits of settling
      1. Houses, wells, improvements used by future, irrigation
      2. Irrigation/defense required work together – organization from above
   3. Catal Huyuk – Turkey – 7000 BCE civilization studied
      1. Rooftop activity – broken bones
      2. Religious responsibilities/fertility gods – images
      3. Trade w/others for peace
   4. Definition – societies economic surplus > division of labor/social hierarchy
      1. Formal political organizations – no relation to family unit
      2. City benefits – wealth, exchange of ideas, artistic/intellectual expression, manufacturing/trade specialization
   5. Writing
      1. First - Cuneiform – wedge shaped Middle East
      2. Tax efficiently
      3. Contracts/treaties
      4. Build on past wisdom
      5. People look at world as something to be understood rationally
      6. Not all peoples literate, each civilization only a minority
   6. Greek term - Barbarians – civilization vs. nomads – wanderers
   7. Negatives of civilization
      1. Class/caste distinctions - slavery
      2. Separation between rulers/ruled
      3. Warlike
      4. Gender inequality – patriarchal – men get manufacturing, political, religious leaders
   8. Benefits of nomadic living
      1. More regulations – word of mouth
      2. Respect of elders/children
      3. Herding economies
      4. Technological improvements – stirrup, weaponry
   9. Impact on Environment
      1. Deforestation
      2. Erosion, flooding
5. In Depth: The Idea of Civilization in World History Perspective
   1. Differences between civilized and barbaric/savages long held
      1. Chinese – cultural, not biological or racial – could adapt
      2. American Indians – feared Chichimecs – sons of the dog
   2. Related to fear of invasion/outsiders common
   3. Civilis – of the citizens – Latin
      1. Rome – urban dwellers vs. forest/desert dwellers
      2. Greece – bar, bar – barbarians
   4. Historians initially – cultural differences, then 19th century racial differences
      1. Some races more inventive, moral, courageous, artistic
         1. Savage to civilized – white,yellow, red, brown, black
         2. Social Darwinism – historiography
         3. Justified European expansion – White Man’s Burden
         4. Ethnocentrism
   5. Other approach – civilization just one form of social organization
      1. All societies produce cultures, though might lack food surplus/specialization
      2. All peoples capable – but lack resources, historical circumstances, desire
6. Tigris-Euphrates Civilization
   1. Precedents
      1. Writing
      2. Law codes
      3. City planning/architecture
      4. Trade institutions & money
   2. Mesopotamia – land between two rivers
      1. One of 3 civilizations from scratch – Central America, China, Mesopotamia
      2. Farming required irrigation
      3. Sumerians 3500 BCE
         1. Cuneiform – scribes
         2. Sumerian art – frescoes for temples
         3. Science – astronomy – calendar/forecasts – aided agriculture
            1. Charts of constellations
         4. Ziggurats – first monumental architecture
         5. Role of geography
            1. Swift and unpredictable floods – religious
            2. Polytheism – punishment of humans through floods – Noah
            3. Gloomy – punishment in afterlife – hell
            4. Easy to invade – constant war
         6. City-states – king w/ divine authority
            1. Regulate religion
            2. Court system for justice
            3. Land worked by slaves – warfare created labor surplus
         7. Inventions – wheeled carts, fertilizer, silver money
      4. Babylonians
         1. Hammurabi – first codified law
            1. Procedure for courts
            2. Property rights
            3. Harsh punishments
      5. Indo-European invasions from North
         1. Adopted culture
   3. Egyptian Civilization
      1. Benefited from trade/technology of Mesopotamia
      2. Geographic factors
         1. Difficult to invade
         2. Regular flooding cycle
      3. Economy – government directed vs. Mesopotamia – freedom
      4. Pharoahs – godlike – tombs – pyramids
      5. Interactions with Kush to the South
      6. Egyptian art – lively, cheerful, colorful – positive afterlife – surrounded by beauty
      7. Architecture influenced later Mediterranean
   4. Indian and Chinese River Valley Civilizations
      1. Indus River – Harappa/Mohenjo Daro
         1. Unique alphabet/art
            1. Harappan alphabet not deciphered
         2. Invasion plus invasion by Indo-Europeans – difficult to understand culture
      2. Huanghe (Yellow River)
         1. Isolated, little overland trading
         2. History part fact/fiction
         3. State organized irrigation
         4. Elaborate intellectual life
            1. Writing – knotted ropes, scratches of lines, ideographic symbols
            2. Delicate art, musical interest
            3. Limited materials – basic housing
   5. Heritage of the River Valley Civilizations
      1. Accomplishments
         1. Monuments
         2. Wheel
         3. Taming of horse
         4. Square roots
         5. Monarchies/bureaucracies
         6. Calendars/time
         7. Major alphabets
      2. How much are these civilizations “origin” of today
         1. Except for China, all have a break from past
         2. Roman empire – god-like king
         3. Slavery
         4. Scientific achievements – Greeks studied Egyptians
      3. East vs. West
         1. Mesopotamians – gap between humankind and nature
         2. China – basic harmony all live together
         3. Temple building, art, architecture – Mesopotamia to Middle East/Greece
         4. Mesopotamia – regional cultures created that could survive invasion
            1. Phoenicians – 22 letter alphabet
               1. Colonized – simplified number system
            2. Jews – morally/ethically based monotheistic religion
               1. Semitic people – small, relatively weak – only autonomous when region was in chaos
               2. Believed god- Jehovah – guided destinies of people
                  1. Orderly, just – not whimsical
               3. Created moral code
               4. Religion basis for Christianity/Islam
               5. God’s compact with Jews
                  1. Little conversion
                  2. Minority position in Middle East
         5. The First Civilizations
            1. Clear division between river valley civilizations and classical civilizations
               1. Invasion/natural calamities – India
               2. Invasion/political decline – Egypt
               3. Mesopotamia – break but bridges – smaller cultures
                  1. Values and institutions spread
            2. Theme emerges – “Steadily proliferating contacts against a background of often fierce local identity”
            3. Integrating force
               1. Local autonomy lessens – priests/kings increase power
            4. Four centers of civilization started
            5. Close neighbors – Egypt/Mesopotamia – different politics, art, beliefs on death
            6. Diversity and civilization worked together

AP World History - Stearns
Chapter 2 – Classical Civilization: China

1. Introduction – longest-lived civilization in history
   1. Isolated
      1. Couldn’t learn from other cultures
      2. Rare invasions
      3. Distinctive identity
      4. Relatively little internal chaos w/ decline of Shang dynasty
         1. Greatest links to classical society
   2. Intellectual theory
      1. Harmony of nature – yin and yang – balance
      2. Seek Dao – the way
         1. Avoid excess
         2. Appreciate balance of opposites
         3. Humans part of world, not on outside – like Mediterranean

   Thesis: China emerged with an unusually well-integrated system in which government, philosophy, economic incentives, the family, and the individual were intended to blend into a harmonious whole.

2. Patterns in Classical China
   1. Pattern of rule
      1. Dynasty, family of kings – create strong politics, economy
      2. Dynasty grew weak, taxes declined
      3. Social divisions increased
      4. Invasion or internal rebellion
      5. Another dynasty emerged – general, invader, peasant rebel
   2. Zhou Dynasty – 1029-258 BCE
      1. Started decline in 700 BCE
      2. Ruled w/ local princes – alliance system
         1. Successful in agricultural communities – ie manor system Europe
         2. Princes received land for troops/tax
      3. Eventually local leaders ignored central gov’t
      4. Contributions
         1. Extended territory to “Middle Kingdom” – wheat north, rice south
            1. Transportation/communication difficult – hard to govern
         2. Mandate of Heaven – Sons of Heaven – emperors live affluent life
         3. Greater cultural unity
            1. Banned human sacrifice
            2. Standardized language – Mandarin – most people speaking same
         4. Confucius – wrote on political ethics
      5. 402-201 BCE Era of the Warring States
   3. Qin Dynasty – China’s namesake
      1. Xin Shi Huangdi – first emperor – brutal leader
         1. Undid power of regional leaders
         2. Nobles brought to emperor’s home
         3. Officials selected from nonaristocratic groups – allegiance
         4. Extended territory south
         5. Built Great Wall – 3000 miles
         6. Burned books, attacked culture – hurts his autocratic rule
      2. Innovations
         1. National census – tax and labor service
         2. Standardized coins, weights, measures
         3. Uniform written language
         4. Irrigation projects
         5. Promoted manufacturing – silk
      3. Downfall – unpopular
         1. high taxes, attacks on intellectuals
         2. killed men, punished brutally
         3. Died in 210 BCE – revolts broke out
   4. Han Dynasty – 202 BCE-220 CE
      1. Kept centralized power of Qin, but reduced repression
      2. Extended borders – opened trade to India, Mediterranean
      3. Wu Ti – period of peace – like Pax Romana
      4. Advancements
         1. Formal training
         2. Supported Confucianism
            1. Shrines built to worship Confucius as god
      5. Invasions – Huns – led to decline
      6. 220 – 589 CE China in chaos
3. Political Institutions
   1. Strong central government
      1. Qin stressed unquestioned central authority
      2. Han – expanded bureaucracy
   2. Political framework
      1. Strong local units remained, but power diminished
         1. Relied on patriarchal families
         2. Ancestor worship linked families
         3. Village leaders helped coordinate farming/harvesting
      2. Single law code
      3. Universal tax system
      4. Central authority appointments – not based on local government nominations
      5. Delegation done to emperor’s ministers
   3. Huge bureaucracy – 130,000 bureaucrats
      1. Civil Service tests
      2. Scholar bureaucrat
      3. Not exclusively upper class rule - occasionally lower class recruited
      4. Rulers often could be controlled by bureaucrats – didn’t do crazy stuff of Rome
   4. Most tightly governed people
      1. Rules administered by trained scholars
      2. Father unquestioned power – passed down from ancestors
      3. Harsh punishments to put down rebellion
   5. Government traditions
      1. Not heavily militaristic – not huge need
      2. Promoted intellectual life – not Qin
      3. Active in economy
         1. Organized production of iron/salt
         2. Han tried storing grain for bad harvests
         3. Sponsored public works – canals/irrigation
   6. Technology made it difficult to control, but…
      1. Torture and execution used to keep obedience
      2. Taxed
      3. Annual labor
   7. Invaders – Huns – couldn’t create better system for governing – kept bureaucrats
4. Religion and Culture – people not united by religion – no political threat
   1. Religion – relation to politics
      1. earthly life/obedience more important than speculating about God
      2. harmonious earthly life – prevent excess
      3. traditions
         1. Ancestor ceremonies
         2. Special meals
         3. Politeness at meals – tea ceremonies/chopsticks
   2. Confucius - Analects
      1. Political virtue and good government
         1. secular views, not religious
      2. Respect for superiors- even if bad
      3. Respect for tradition
      4. Leaders should behave modestly without excess
         1. Work hard as a leader and lesser people will serve superiors
         2. “When the ruler does right, all men will imitate his self-control”
         3. Rulers not just punish – be humble and sincere
      5. Satisfied upper class distaste for mystery, and interest in learning/manners
      6. Gov’t used to maintain order
      7. 7. Careful socialization of children
      8. 8. Lacks spiritual side
   3. Legalism – pragmatism
      1. Better gov’t is one that rules by force
      2. Human nature evil – needs restraint
      3. Confucian façade + legalist strong arm tactics
   4. Polytheistic beliefs – appealed to peasants
      1. Spirits of nature
      2. Ancestors
      3. Dragons – fear plus playful respect
   5. Daoism – first to upper class who wanted spirituality
      1. Nature has divine impulse that directs life
      2. Understanding comes from withdrawing and thinking of “way of nature”
      3. Espoused humility and frugal living
   6. Intellectual
      1. Five Classics – speeches, songs, poems, etiquette, political materials
         1. Poetry mark of an educated person
      2. Art form
         1. Calligraphy
         2. Chinese artists, pottery, carved jade
         3. No monumental buildings – except palaces/Great Wall
            1. No singular religion
            2. Confucianism against temples soaring to heaven
      3. Science – practical work – not imaginative theorizing
         1. Calculated motion of planets 1500 years before Copernicus
         2. Medicine – anatomical research – proper hygiene for longer life
5. Economy and Society
   1. Class – social status passed from one generation to the next
      1. Upper class literate, wealth, culture denied peasants
         1. Mandarins – educated bureaucrats + landowning aristocracy
      2. Land owners 2%, peasantry the rest
         1. “mean” people – lowest status – like India’s untouchables
      3. Property owned communally
   2. Trade
      1. Luxury items – silk, jewelry, leather goods, furniture – Silk Road
         1. Carried by merchants
      2. Merchants not highly important – Confucius prioritized learning/political service
   3. Technological Advance – practical usage – remained agricultural
      1. Ox-drawn plow/collar for animals
      2. Iron mining – pulleys and winding gear
      3. Production methods advanced – water powered mills
      4. Paper invented – needed for bureaucracy
   4. Family life – father unquestioned leader
      1. “There are no wrongdoing parents”
         1. law courts don’t punish parents
      2. Strict control of emotions
         1. Home training ground for personality
      3. Women gained power through sons/mother-in-laws to women brought in
      4. Power to oldest son, boys over girls
6. How Chinese Civilization Fits Together – Chinese wholeness – not a divided society
   1. “China’s politics and culture meshed readily, especially around the emergence of a Confucian bureaucracy.”
   2. Theme of isolation – surrounded by barbarians – can’t learn anything from outsiders
      1. Buddhism – rare foreign concept embraced by population
   3. Common culture provided unity
      1. Elaborate bureaucracy
      2. Confucianism – trained group w/ common ideals
      3. Appreciation of distinctive art, poetry and literature
      4. Relative political stability
      5. Stable family – clear hierarchy
      6. Private and public not separated – extensions
      7. Views on etiquette
      8. Language
   4. Daoists and Confucianists tolerated
      1. But…Confucianists saw Daoists as superstitious
      2. Sometimes divine attacks on gov’t
   5. Justice – tight control - Arrested – presumed guilty – tortured
      1. Mixed torture w/ benevolence – good cop/bad coop
   6. Precarious balance – sometimes violent
7. Global connections – Heavy influence on the world
   1. 1/5 of population supported by peasants
   2. Created technologies shared w/ world
      1. Power – water mill, porcelain (China), paper, compass
   3. Views affected region “Middle Kingdom” basis for most of Asia
      1. 2000 year reign

AP World History - Stearns
Chapter 3 – Classical Civilization: India

1. Introduction – difference vs. China
   1. China focus on politics/related philosophies vs. India focus on religion/social structure
   2. Less cohesive political structure
   3. Both were agricultural societies, localist flavor, male ownership, patriarchal, trade
2. The Framework for Indian History: Geography and a Formative Period
   1. Closer to other civilizations
      1. Influenced by Middle East/Mediterranean
      2. Persian Empires spilled over/Alexander also
      3. Forced to react and adapt
   2. Topography
      1. Passes through Himalayas linked India
      2. Somewhat set apart
      3. Political unity difficult – greater diversity than middle kingdom
   3. River civilizations – Indus and Ganges
   4. Mountainous north – herding society
   5. Separate regions contributed to:
      1. economic diversity
      2. racial differences
      3. language differences
   6. Unstable, monsoon climate – but helped with agriculture
      1. Harvest two crops in a year, help support large population
   7. Formative period – Vedic and Epic ages – Aryan migrants – hunting and herding peoples
      1. Knowledge passed down through epics written in Sanskrit – Vedas
         1. Mahabharata
         2. Ramayana
         3. Upanishads
      2. Aryans settled, made tight-knit villages
         1. Families patriarchal, connected across generation
         2. Aryans created social classes
            1. Warrior/governing – Kshatriyas
            2. Priests – Brahmins
            3. Traders/farmers – Vaisyas
            4. Common laborers – Sudras
            5. Untouchables – refuse, transporting dead bodies, other lovely jobs
         3. Social groups became hereditary
            1. Can’t marry between castes – punishable by death
            2. Broken into smaller subgroups
         4. Aryans brought polytheistic religion – similar to Greek myth, Scandinavians
            1. One of few polytheistic religions to survive
               1. Hymns/sacrifice
         5. Upanishads – epic poems
            1. Sacred animals – monkeys/cattle
            2. Rituals and sacrifice
            3. Brahmin class enforced rituals
            4. Unifying divine force, seek union with this force
3. Patterns in Classical India – end of 600 BCE – formative phase
   1. 16 major states existed – some monarchies, some republics – dominated by warriors/priests
   2. Eras often created as reaction to invaders
   3. Mauryan Dynasty – Chandragupta Mauryan 322BCE – unified subcontinent
      1. maintained large armies
      2. developed bureaucracy
      3. highly autocratic – rely on ruler’s power
      4. style of govt
         1. autocratic – based on ruler’s personal/military power
      5. Ashoka – grandson – lavish lifestyle
         1. influenced by nature/spiritualism
         2. but…bloodthirsty methods of expansion
         3. converted to Buddhism – think Constantine
            1. spread Buddhism throughout empire, honored Hinduism – precedent
         4. improved trade/ road network
      6. Kushans – outside invaders – converted to Buddhism
         1. but…bad for Buddhism – connected to outsiders
   4. Guptas – 320 CE
      1. no powerful individual rulers, but greater impact
      2. negotiate w/ local princes
         1. expanded influence w/out fighting – diff. than above
      3. two generations of political stability – think Pax Romana
   5. Shifted between empires and network of smaller kingdoms
4. Political Institutions
   1. Regionalism – diversity
      1. Autocratic kings once in awhile, but also aristocratic assemblies
   2. How did they maintain power?
      1. Mauryan – military power
      2. Gupta
         1. negotiation
         2. appointed by gods
         3. allowed local rulers to have autonomy – think Rome
            1. no single language imposed – promoted Sanskrit, but…
         4. Golden Age
            1. spread laws
            2. supported university, arts, literature
   3. However…not an elaborate political culture
      1. little political theory, not like Greeks
      2. Kautilya – how to maintain power – like Legalism in China
      3. political service not valued as important
      4. Buddhist leaders not interested in political affairs
   4. Why the limitations?
      1. local governments
      2. caste system already regulated life – social behavior – political laws unnecessary
         1. subcastes, hereditary – can’t marry outside
            1. but…marry below, or lower job and you could lose caste
            2. rarely move up in caste – did well economically
         2. most rigid social structure of all classic civilizations
            1. method of conquerors and conquered to live together in peace
            2. not necessary to totally blend cultures
            3. promoted tolerance
            4. slavery avoided – untouchables not owned
   5. Qualities of civilization based on cultural values
      1. Hindu/Buddhism clearest cement
      2. remarkable ability to survive
      3. means so many different things to so many different people
      4. can evolve
      5. Indian children can indulge imaginations
         1. imaginative links with higher power
         2. clear continuity though rarely under one political power
5. Religion and Culture
   1. Hinduism – origins in Vedic and Epic ages
      1. Rig-Veda – Creation hymn
      2. Different – no single founder – no central holy figure
         1. Grew gradually, sometimes in reaction to other religions – Buddhism/Islam
      3. Religious approaches
         1. Ritualistic ceremonies performed by brahmans
         2. mysticism – unite humans w/ divine
         3. encouraged political and economic goals (artha) and worldly pleasures (karma)
         4. fluidity – adaptable – tolerant – many suitable paths of worship – Christianity?
      4. Brahmanism – Brahman leadership elaborate – called by scholars – dharma by Hindus
         1. gods of nature altered – represent abstract
            1. Varuna – god of the sky to guardian of right and wrong
         2. Epic poems – gentle/generous behavior
      5. Upanishads – shallowness of worldly concerns – wealth/health
      6. each person’s soul part of universe
      7. religion of rituals vs. religion of mystics
         1. mystics – gurus and Brahmas agreed to
            1. existence of divine essence – several gods – try to seek union w/ this soul
               1. Vishnu – preserved/ Shiva – destroyer
               2. takes many lifetimes – reincarnation
               3. where soul goes depends on reincarnation
      8. options for good life
         1. meditation/self-discipline – yoga
         2. others wanted rituals – cremation, prayers, sacred cows, refrain from beef
         3. some believed in lesser nature gods
         4. symbolic sacrifices might assist in reincarnation
      9. life obligations
         1. serve family
         2. earn money
         3. serve in army when necessary
      10. Bhagavad Gita – classic hymn – OK to kill family, duty, plus they’re reincarnated
      11. but…doesn’t have strict ethical codes – aka Ten Commandments
      12. Why did it spread?
          1. satisfying rules of conduct for life
          2. incorporated previous religion
          3. caste system – better time in future life
   2. Buddhism – 563 BCE – Siddhartha Gautama – Buddha – enlightened one
      1. searched for truth, found it, accepted many elements of Hinduism, but..
         1. disagreed with caste system
         2. all worldly desires hurt you
         3. if you destroy self, can reach nirvana – self-control – regulate life
         4. denied importance of rituals/priests
      2. spread by group of monks – prayer/charity/piety helped spread message
         1. Brahman opposition strong
      3. Hinduism still attractive due to mysticism
   3. Literature
      1. Political theory sparse, but wrote about human life
      2. “laws of love” – Kamasutra – male/female relationships
      3. Recorded epics – lively stories
      4. Romantic adventure – separated/returned – romantic/adventure
   4. Science
      1. Supported university – astronomy and medicine
         1. Religion prevented dissection
         2. Bone setting, plastic surgery, sterilization – reached West much later
   5. Mathematics – imported through Arabs – but Indian
      1. Concept of zero – decimal system
      2. negative numbers
      3. square roots
      4. pi
   6. Art – lively, but much perished
      1. Stupas – spherical shrines to Buddha
      2. Not realistic like Greeks, but stylized
      3. Appreciation of nature
      4. Joy of life themes + celebrate religion
   7. Tone – not rational like West, or concentration on Politics like China
6. Economy and Society
   1. Caste system
      1. Different punishments for different crimes – Brahman killed servant – same as dog
      2. Villagers rarely had contact with higher caste
   2. Family life based on hierarchy
      1. wife worship husband as god
      2. women lost power as male power expanded – common of agricultural societies
      3. question – could woman advance spiritually if not reincarnated as man?
      4. Arranged marriages – solid economic links
      5. Emphasis on loving relations/sexual pleasure
      6. children indulged and then expected to work hard
      7. clever-strong willed women as goddesses
   3. Economy
      1. Chemistry, strongest steel – better than West until recently
      2. Textiles – cotton cloth, calico, cashmere
      3. Emphasis on trade far greater than in China
         1. Tamil traders – cotton, silks, dyes, drugs, gold, ivory
      4. Most people lived subsistence lives

   In Depth: Inequality as the Social Norm

7. Indian Influence
   1. Indian Ocean – most active linkage point among cultures
      1. No civilization to compete w/ India – but not empire builders
   2. Effect on other areas
      1. married into royal families
      2. temples and Indian art constructed
      3. Buddhism spread throughout – Hinduism to upper class Indonesian families
      4. Affect China > Buddhism and art
   3. Started after Aryan invasions, but classical period lasted longer than China/Rome
      1. Foundation of religion, art, literary tradition, social & family network
8. China and India – borrowed from each other, but didn’t change
   1. India vs. China - Differences
      1. Art – lively vs. restrained
      2. primary religion vs. separate religions/philosophies to fit needs
         1. Religion more otherworldly vs. practicial findings
         1. Emphasis on caste vs. political structure
         2. Different emotional reactions vs. restrained behavior
         3. Expanded cultural influence through trade vs. new territory/emissaries
         4. Land ownership consistent vs. trying to get more land/take over power
      3. India vs. China – Similarities
         1. large peasant class
         2. close-knit villages
         3. mutual cooperation
         4. cities/merchants took on secondary role
            1. but…more sea trade in India
         5. owners of land had power, could tax
         6. patriarchy
9. Global Connections
   1. no civilization more open to others
   2. None more central to cultural exchanges
   3. New civilizations
      1. Trade influence grew
      2. Religion, epics, art, architecture led to new civilizations – Angkor Wat/Majapahit
   4. Trading network
      1. Coveted cotton textiles and bronze statuaries
      2. Epic literature

Chapter 4
Classical Civilization in the Mediterranean: Greece and Rome

1. Introduction
   1. Mediterranean culture
      1. Greece slowed Persian empire, set up a few colonies, but…
      2. Rome known for empire
      3. New institutions/values that would remain in western culture
      4. “our own” Classical past
         1. U.S. Constitution
         2. buildings in the U.S.
         3. founders of the philosophical tradition
         4. Socratic method
   2. Greco-Roman history
      1. more dynamic, but less successful
         * We can clearly recognize the connections and our own debt without adhering to the notion that the Mediterranean world somehow dominated the classical period.
      2. Complicated – passed through two centers
         1. Rome preserved many of Greek achievements
   3. Rome vs. Greece
      1. Mighty empire vs. inept/Greek city-states
      2. Mastered engineering vs. scientific thought
      3. western Europe – Greco Roman vs. Eastern Europe – Greek influence
      4. Shared
         1. political ideas
         2. common religion
         3. artistic styles
         4. economic structures
2. The Persian Tradition
   1. 550 BCE Cyrus the Great – massive Persian Empire across Middle East
      1. Tolerant of local customs
      2. Advanced iron technology
      3. Zoroastrianism
      4. artistic lifestyle
      5. Conquered by Alexander the Great
      6. Persian language and culture survived into the 20th century
3. Patters of Greek and Roman History
   1. Greece
      1. Crete – showed Egyptian influence by 2000
         1. Monumental architecture
      2. 1400 Mycenae – kingdom Trojan War
         1. Indo-Europeans destroyed until 800 – Dark Ages
      3. Rise from 800-600 strong city-states
         1. tyrant or aristocratic council
         2. divided by mountains
            1. unified government difficult
            2. trade developed
         3. written language came from Phoenician alphabet
         4. regular celebrations
            1. athletic competitions – Olympic games
         5. Sparta/Athens rose to the top
            1. Sparta – military tradition dominated slves
            2. Athens – commercial state, slaves, artistic/intellectual leadership
      4. 5th century – Democracy in Athens
         1. Pericles - most famous political figure
            1. No official position, but influence/negotiation
         2. each citizen participated
         3. eventually Spartan/Athenian war weakens both sides
            1. Peloponnesian Wars – weakened Greece
               1. Philip II of Macedon came down and took over
               2. Alexander the Great then kept going to Persia
                  1. 13 years of conquests – 33
                  2. Successor kingdoms ruled for centuries
                  3. Hellenistic period – Greek art/culture merges
                  4. Trade flourished
                  5. Scientific centers – Alexandria
                  6. Greece decline, but legacy carries on
   2. Rome
      1. Started under control of monarchy in 800 – defeated in 509
      2. Roman republic expanded
         1. Always fear of invaders, keep extending boundaries
         2. Across Sicily, conflict with Carthage
            1. Leads to Punic Wars – 3 of them
               1. Bloody defeat by Hannibal – through Gaul
               2. 3rd Punic War – salted fields – agriculture
      3. Republic replaced by powerful generals
         1. Caesar first to “Cross the Rubicon” – 45 BCE
         2. August Caesar takes over in 27 BCE – after rivalry following assassinat
            1. Pax Romana – basic structure for Roman Empire
               1. Until 180 CE Marcus Aurelius – peace to Medit. World
               2. Empire expanded to Britain
         3. Gradual fall until 476 when invaders took over
            1. economic deterioration – trade loss
            2. population loss – declining birth rates
            3. government less effective – couldn’t take care of empire
            4. unable to take over more land to finance empire
            5. too spread out – undefendable
      4. Diocletian Reforms
      5. Constantine – 313 adopts Christianity
      6. After the fall
         1. Governments became local in Western Europe – can’t control/order
         2. Roman armies needed foreign recruits – why are we fighting again?
4. Greek and Roman Political Institutions
   1. Introduction
      1. Politics crucial – polis – Greek city-state – similar to China
         1. “Good life” included political service, military
      2. Did not try to administer local regions
      3. Unlike China, never had single set of political institutions/bureaucracy/emp
      4. Like India diverse forms
         1. Monarchy – not preferred – tried to abolish
         2. Individual strongman – tyranny – quite common – some effective
   2. Greece – demos – the people
      1. General assemblies – all vote – direct democracy – not a republic
      2. Executive officers chosen by lot – similar to jury duty
      3. ½ citizens – slave/foreigners – women excluded > 25% participate
      4. Negatives of democracy – Peloponnesian Wars
         1. Lower class citizens want power – recommend stupid military choices
      5. Most preferred – aristocratic assemblies – aristocracy – rule of the best
   3. Rome
      1. Constitution – relied on aristocracy – election of magistrates
      2. Senate – held executive offices – two consuls shared power – public speaking
         1. Dictator during emergencies
      3. Ample political theory – Cicero main guy
         1. Political ethics
         2. Duties of citizens
         3. incorruptible service
         4. key political skills – oratory
         5. . Diff. than China – not so much on hierarchy, obedience, bureaucracy
      4. Roman Empire – preserved Senate – relatively useless
      5. Local autonomy prevailed – accept times like Jewish rebellion 63 CE
         1. tolerance local customs, religion
      6. Strong military organization
      7. Well-crafted laws – Twelve Tables 450 BCE – restrain upper class
         1. Rules, not personal whim, should govern people
         2. regulated property, commerce
         3. similar to Chinese bureaucratic structure
      8. Focused on law courts, military force
         1. Not so much on commerce, but…
         2. Rome…roads, harbors – military transport, commerce
         3. Public baths, stadiums – “bread and circuses”
      9. Supported official religion – civic festivals, but not imposed
         1. Religions tolerated as long as didn’t conflict with state
            1. Problem w/ Christianity, state not first
   4. Key elements
      1. Localism, political focus, diversity of political systems, aristocracy, law
      2. Lacked specific individual rights, instability showed system was flawed
5. Religion and Culture
   1. Religion
      1. Christianity spread, but not a product of Christian/Roman Culture
      2. Greco-Roman religion – nature > gods and goddesses
         1. Different names/interacted w/ mortals/whims/soap opera
         2. Patrons of nature/human activities
         3. god stories used to illustrate human passions/foibles – literature
         4. lacked spiritual passion – lower class attracted to “mystery religions” M. East
         5. Upper class – didn’t allow for method systematic inquiry
      3. Many thinkers/philosophers searched for explanations/model for ethical behavior
         1. Aristotle – Golden Mean – balance
         2. Stoics – moral independence – discipline/personal bravery
         3. Socrates – question – accused of undermining – poison
         4. Plato – understand three forms – True, Good, Beautiful
         5. Importance – human ability to think, not human spirituality
         6. Similar to Confucianism, but more skeptical and focused on abstract questions
   2. Rational inquiry
      1. Few inventions, many theories, classification
         1. Many theories wrong
         2. Some geometry, anatomy, incorrect astronomy
      2. Romans more practical – engineering – roads/aqueducts
   3. Art and literature – far more important
      1. Official religion inspires artist expression – temples, statues
      2. Realistic depiction of human form
      3. Poetry, music, dance – not as preserved
      4. Drama – comedy and tragedy – trilogy – focused on human flaws
         1. Sophocles – Oedipus complex
         2. Not just for upper class
         3. Romans known more for athletic performances – charioteers/gladiators
      5. Greek literature – epic tradition – Homer – Iliad/Odyssey – links mythology/history
      6. Sculpture – heroic/realistic tradition
      7. Architecture – columns – Doric, Ionic, Corinthian – classical architecture
         1. Rome – dome/stadium – heavily adorned public buildings/monuments
6. Economy and Society
   1. Tendency for large landowners to squeeze out small farmers > feudalism later
      1. Much tension comes from farmers trying to keep independence, get out of debt
      2. Difficulty in farming – geography, topography
         1. Forced olives, grapes – but these need capital, patience – 5 years – landlord
      3. Commercial agriculture led to need for empire
         1. Supervised grain trade, public works, storage facilities
         2. Manufactured products less advanced – exported animals/skins, metals
   2. Merchants – better in Mediterranean than China, but ambiguous
   3. Slavery – key component – agriculture – from military expansion
      1. Free farmers couldn’t compete w/ slave/tenant labor
      2. Hurt technological innovation – behind India/China in production technology
   4. Tight family structure – women inferior/dif
   5. f. laws – not as bad as China, but infanticide
   6. Not the period of “human race was most happy or prosperous” – idealized in Western world
      1. Urban achievements not everything
7. The Fall of Rome – fell in parts, not all at once
   1. No central religion
   2. Classical Mediterranean life not fully carried on
8. Global connections
   1. Outsiders as barbarians
   2. Alexander the Great expanded
   3. some Romans saw Greek literature/philosophical focus as a waste of time
   4. Rome expanded to Germanic tribes – trade/war
      1. Tolerant of local customs, but built Roman monuments
   5. Believed there was little to learn from beyond their own borders
9. Classical Mediterranean in Comparative Perspective
   1. China, India, Medit. All have agricultural economy, empires
      1. Secular Medit. similar to Confucian
   2. Politics don’t speak of deference, bureaucratic training
   3. Greeks more into theory
   4. Each had social hierarchy and laws to justify/protect upper class
      1. Aristocracy – India – priests, China – bureaucrats, Medit. – aristocrats
   5. Social mobility
      1. India’s caste – little
      2. China – few talented bureaucrats could move up
      3. Medit. – some non-aristocrats could move up, military
   6. Lowest class
      1. India – untouchables
      2. China – “mean people”
      3. Medit. – slavery
         1. Farmers/property important – but scorned manual labor > slavery
      4. United by different reasons – social unrest, rebellions in all
         1. India – Hinduism
         2. Medit. – military force, local authorities
         3. Chinese – Confucianism – obedience, self-restraint
      5. China/India more successful in convincing poor of legitimacy of class structure
         1. Medit. focused on aristocracy, tried to give some political rights to others

Chapter 5
The Classical Period: Directions, Diversities, and Declines by 500 C.E.

1. Expansion and Integration
   1. Key point – how did classical civilizations adjust to expansion
      1. Between 550>400 BCE Confucius, Laozi, Buddha, Socrates
         1. Need to articulate central values
   2. How did they all unite?
      1. China – more centralized
      2. Mediterranean – more localized/diverse
      3. India – key religious values – not as vulnerable to collapse – like Rome
   3. What are the two challenges of integration?
      1. Territorial – how to command
         1. China – language for elite, resettlement
         2. Rome – local autonomy, tolerance
         3. India – spread caste system
      2. Social – inequality between men/women – upper/lower class
         1. China – hierarchy – deference – obedience – Confucian
         2. India – caste system
         3. Rome – slavery
   4. How to maintain cohesion?
      1. Rome – promise of upward mobility
      2. China – mutual respect between upper and lower
      3. India – future reincarnation into higher form if good life
2. Beyond the Classical Civilizations
   1. Some as border civilizations, some entirely independent
      1. Wider trade patterns
   2. Africa – Kush – hieroglyphics, iron, monarchy
      1. Defeated by Axum, then Ethiopia
         1. Ethiopian Christian church cut off from Greeks – isolated
         2. Ethiopia – by 20th century – oldest uninterrupted monarchy
      2. Farming on southern border of Sahara – regional kingdoms
         1. Agriculture spread slowly – dense vegetation, diseases on domesticated
         2. Eventually farmed new crops, traded w/ Asia
   3. Japan – 200 CE extensive agriculture – migrations from Korea over 200,000 year period
      1. tribal chiefs – each tribe had own god
      2. Chinese visitor – law-abiding, fond of drink, experts agriculture
         1. Tattoos to separate social classes
      3. Shintoism – worship political rulers and spirits of nature – eventually nationalized
      4. 400 CE – one regional ruler took over surrounding territories
         1. By 600 CE began trading/interacting with Chinese civilization
   4. Northern Europe – lagged behind Japan – most backward areas in the world
      1. Regional kingdoms – no written language – except Latin imports
         1. Primitive agriculture and hunting
      2. Gods and rituals to deal with nature
         1. Not until 1000 CE did Christianity truly unite
   5. Central America – Olmec civilization – more advanced than Europe/Africa
      1. Corn staple food crop, but few domesticated animals
      2. Olmec culture
         1. Artistic forms – jade
         2. religious images – animals and humans
         3. science – accurate calendars
      3. Successors made Teotihuacan – great city, later taken over by Maya – 400 CE on
      4. Olmecs similar to Sumerians – foundation
      5. Incas in Peru/Bolivia – isolation form world – couldn’t copy and react
         1. No wheel, iron
         2. Advanced civilization – agriculture to city
   6. Polynesian peoples – Fiji by 1000 BCE, Hawaii 400 CE
      1. Great travelers/explorers
      2. adapted local plants, brought in new animals, imported caste system under kings
   7. Central Asia – played central role in trade
      1. Invention of stirrup
      2. Important contacts between civilizations
      3. herding groups invaded civilizations
3. Decline in China and India
   1. 200-600 CE all three start to decline
      1. Outside invasion – nomadic growth – Huns
         1. Huns realized weakness of regime
      2. Internal problems
   2. Han Dynasty – population growth/prosperity spiral down
      1. Confucian intellectual activity less active
      2. Bureaucrats corrupt
      3. Local landlords took up power
      4. New peasant taxes – social unrest
         1. Peasants become day laborers/sell children
      5. Daoism attractive – healing practices + magic
         1. Yellow Turbans – golden age w/ magic
            1. Attacked weak emperor/corrupt bureaucracy
      6. Similarities to Rome
         1. Political ineffectiveness
         2. Epidemics – killed half of China
         3. Three centuries of chaos
      7. Cultural unity threatened by Buddhism
      8. Eventually invaders kicked out by Sui and Tang – started one of most glorious periods
      9. Why survived?
         1. Structures too strong – bureaucracy
            1. Invaders couldn’t offer anything better
   3. India decline – not as drastic
      1. Gupta emperors losing control of local princes
      2. Hun invaders penetrate deeper into India
      3. Regional princes, Rajput, gain more power
      4. But…Indian culture evolved – Hinduism wins out over Buddhism
         1. Huns have no patience for Buddhist principles of calm/contemplation
         2. Mother Goddess Devi spread
      5. Threat from Islam, Arabs fighting for Allah
         1. Hinduism supported more by government
         2. Not as much focus on intellectual pursuits, focus put on uniting Hinduism
         3. Arab traders took control of trade
      6. Regionalism prevailed, but Hinduism saved the day
4. Decline and Fall of Rome – most severe
   1. Symptoms of decay
      1. Declining population
      2. Brutal/arbitrary emperors
      3. tax collection difficult – blood from turnip
      4. humans saw futility of life
   2. Causes
      1. weak emperors, succession, army helps selects emperors
      2. plagues from international trade
      3. population decrease > can’t recruit troops > have to hire Germanic soldiers
      4. Upper class more pleasure seeking – loss of morals
         1. Stopped having kids
      5. Aside from writing textbooks, no new artistic creativity
         1. Textbooks summarized info already known, plus threw in superstition
   3. Course of decline
      1. quality of imperial rule declined
      2. life became more dangerous
      3. economic survival more difficult> farmers work for landlords > feudalism/manorialism
      4. estates became self-sufficient – trade declined
      5. Some emperors try to stop
         1. Diocletian reforms – improve administration, tax coll, economic regulation, worship emperor as god > Persecute Christians
         2. Constantine – Constantinople – use Christianity to unify – eastern emp. Effective
      6. Western proven as even weaker – when barbarians come – no one cares
         1. 5% of empire able to take over
      7. Why it didn’t survive?
         1. No shared political/bureaucratic traditions
         2. No common religion
      8. Created three regions
         1. Eastern – Byzantine Empire – Greek – Justinian codes – famous Roman laws
            1. Sassanid Empire – Persian – bridge to the east – continued under Persian rule
         2. North Africa – Augustine – Christian theologizns
            1. Coptic Church in Egypt – soon Islam would take over
         3. Western empire – shattered
            1. Regional unities
            2. Reduced level of civilization – crude, cities shrank, Dark Ages
               1. Literacy falls – sense of inferiority to classical Rome – forgotten
5. The New Religious Map
   1. End of classical period led to rise of major religions – unprecedented growth
      1. Devastating plagues – provided solace for death
      2. Growing political instability – Christianity > Mediterranean, Buddhism > Asia
         1. Islam arose in 600 CE and became most dominant force
      3. Common focus
         1. Spiritual concerns beyond daily life
         2. Hope of better existence after death
      4. Hundreds of thousands underwent conversion process
         1. Syncretism – religions changed to incorporate features of civilization
      5. Yet, remained different
   2. Buddhism
      1. Buddhism altered more than Hinduism as it expanded across Asia
         1. Monks pushed conversion
         2. Two groups – minority who abandoned earthly life & others doing best they could
      2. bodhisattvas – attain nirvana through meditation
         1. Could lead in prayer and advise on spiritual matters
      3. Changed from religion based on ethics to emotional cult offering salvation
      4. In China, issue of celestial afterlife
         1. Mahayana – Greater Vehicle – east Asian form
            1. Buddha as divine savior – statues, against earlier belief against images
            2. Boddhisattvas – souls could receive prayers and aid people after death
         2. Southeast Asia – closer to original – meditation and ethics
      5. Pushed forward new artistic interests – pagodas in Japan
      6. Impact on women
         1. women and men both had souls
         2. syncretism – Buddhist – husband “supports” wife > “controls”
         3. valued pious Buddhist wives – could help family reach salvation
            1. keep wives busy, calm, out of mischief
      7. Conflict
         1. Focus on afterlife takes away focus on political interests
         2. holy life incompatible w/ family needs
         3. threat to distract loyalty to emperor
         4. Daoism reaction – practical benefits through magic
      8. Never dominated culture, coexisted
         1. response to changing conditions of troubled area
6. Christianity
   1. Similarities to Buddhism
      1. Spreading at same time – Buddhism east, Christianity west
      2. Christianity initially less successful
      3. Emphasis on salvation
      4. Guidance of saints
   2. Differences
      1. Placed more emphasis on organization, structure - borrowed from Roman Empire
      2. Premium on conversion
      3. Exclusive nature of truth, intolerant of competing beliefs - reason for success
   3. Beginnings
      1. Reaction to rigidities of Jewish priesthood
      2. Cult/reaction movements started – promised afterlife for virtuous
         1. Jesus of Nazareth – gentleness + charisma
         2. initially no desire to spread
         3. message
            1. one God, virtuous life dedicated to God, fellowship among believers, life of poverty better for holiness
            2. Sacrifice for sins
            3. Afterlife > belief, good works, discipline, perform rituals
         4. why did it spread?
            1. Solace in negative world
            2. Missionaries travel easily around Roman Empire
            3. early leaders made adjustments to match needs
               1. Bishop system matched provincial governments
            4. attractive to rich/poor – promise of salvation – like Hinduism
            5. women – souls equal, men and women worship together
      3. Gradual growth
         1. Competed w/ eastern cults, persecuted
         2. Constantine converted only 10%
            1. Theocracy in East – emperor strong
            2. Provincial leaders more power in West – papa – Pope in Rome
      4. Beliefs
         1. Trinity – Father, Son, Holy Spirit
         2. formal theology – writers – Augustine – mixed w/ classical philosophy
         3. Notion of free will
         4. state not first
         5. worked against slavery – brotherhood more important – across class lines
         6. respect for disciplined work
         7. Church building maintained Roman architecture
      5. Syncretism – polytheistic traditions
         1. Moved birth to winter solstice – December 22ish
      6. Monasticism – Benedict
         1. Benedictine Rule – disciplined life, prayer, study, piety
         2. Monasteries centers of learning – preserved classics
7. The World around 500 CE
   1. World religion – durability, different kinds of people
      1. cuts across cultures, wins converts, wide geographic area, diversity
      2. animism decreases
   2. Islam – initially surpasses Christianity, rival ever since
      1. No new religion after Islam
      2. Religious map doesn’t alter much after Islam
   3. Changes to world
      1. Showed importance of trade routes
      2. Tendency toward single divinity – away from polytheism – but still existed
   4. Set up themes for future
      1. Response to collapse of former civilizations
      2. Need to react to new religious map
      3. Agricultural skill, and new contacts meant other civilizations would be catching up
   5. Global connections
      1. dangerous land travel
      2. new premium on shipping
      3. borders became more porous – new exchanges – new connections for future

Chapter 6
The First Global Civilization: The Rise and Spread of Islam

1. Introduction
   1. Before 7th century – contacts, but not total control of ancient world under one empire
      1. Arabia – nomadic land on periphery of major civilizations
   2. 7th century – followers of Islam “submission” – Muslims – Allah – one God
      1. Began conquest and conversion
      2. Within decades, Muhammad had empire of Persia, Greece and Egypt
   3. Later empire spread
      1. Merchants, mystics, warriors
      2. Empire expanded
         1. Africa, Asia, southern Europe
         2. Across steppes to central Asia, western China, south Asia
         3. Across ocean trade routes to southeast Asia and eastern Africa
         4. Across overland trade routes, Sahara to western Africa
         5. Across Asia Minor and into European heartland – rivals Christianity
      3. Muslim merchants
         1. Worked with traders from other regions
         2. Prime agents for transfer of food crops, technology, and ideas
         3. Muslim scholars studied, preserved and improved upon learning of Ancient Civs
            1. Eventually, Arabic – language of Qur’an would become international language of the educated
      4. Would define Middle East and N. Africa until today
2. Desert and Town: The Arabian World and the Birth of Islam
   1. Introduction
      1. Geography – unlikely birth of religion – inhospitable desert
      2. Bedouin – nomadic culture dominant
         1. Some towns – Mecca/Medina – merely extensions of Bedouin life
            1. Safety of trade routes determined success of cities
            2. People linked to kinship
            3. Culture
               1. Focus on clan and family
               2. language and religion
         2. Some coastal trading towns
   2. Clan Identity, Clan Rivalries, and the Cycle of Vengeance
      1. Organization
         1. kin-related clans group with others to make tribes
            1. Only congregate for war, severe crisis
            2. Conditions force you to rely on clan – kicked out equals death
            3. Life regulated by councils
               1. shayks – leaders of the tribe/clan
                  1. has large herds, several wives, many children/retainers
               2. Ideas of shayks enforced by warriors
         2. Conflict over pastureland/watering holes
            1. Need to defend one’s honor
            2. One man’s slight could lead to huge conflict followed by revenge
            3. Constant conflicts led to weakened empire – vulnerable to outsiders
   3. Towns and Long-Distance Trade
      1. Small communities of traders emerge
      2. Some northern cities become trade links
         1. Mecca dominates – mountainous region – controlled by Umayyad clan of Quraysh tribe
            1. Mecca has Ka’ba – focus of bazaars
               1. Obligatory truce brought rival groups together
         2. Medina – to the north – wells and springs
            1. Unlike Mecca, run by five competing families – 2 bedouin, 2 Jewish
               1. These divisions later help with formation of Islam
   4. Marriage and Family in Pre-Islamic Arabia
      1. Women greater freedom…varied from tribe to tribe
         1. Key economic roles – milking camel, weaving cloth, raising children
         2. Unlike Persian neighbors – not covered or secluded
         3. wrote poetry
         4. Able to have multiple partners
         5. Lineage matrilineal
      2. …but, men still greater
         1. Earn status through war/battle
         2. Creation of cities leads to stratification leads to male dominance
         3. Men only polygamy
   5. Poets and Neglected Gods
      1. Sparse resources – art and architecture didn’t flourish
      2. Poetry/oral history main method of sharing stories
         1. Theme – heroic clans, warriors
      3. Gods – polytheistic and animism
         1. But…how many really believed
         2. One tribe, Quraysh believed had one god named Allah
            1. but not prayed to, sacrificed to initially
3. The Life of Muhammad and the Genesis of Islam
   1. Early life of Muhammad
      1. Born into prominent clan of Quraysh tribe
         1. Father and mother die, raised by uncle and prominent grandfather
         2. Made caravan trips with Abu Talib – exposed to Christian/Jewish faiths
      2. Early 20s worked as a trader for Khadijah – later wife
         1. saw inequity of classes
         2. saw class rivalries
         3. saw tension between clans as some, Umayyads, got rich through commerce
         4. saw monotheistic religions
            1. Many prophets during this time period pushed for monotheism
      3. 610 – first revelation from Gabriel
         1. Wrote Allah’s words in Qur-an
   2. Persecution, Flight and Victory
      1. Seen as threat – Umayyad in Mecca
         1. Threat to wealth and power
         2. Threatened Ka’ba role, no longer center of commerce?
      2. One clansmen Ali, finds way for him to sneak out to Medina in 622
         1. Medina ideal location – caught up in clan conflict
         2. Muhammad invited in to resolve disputes
         3. Wisdom as political leader won him new converts
      3. Umayyad send out attacks on Muhammad
         1. Muhammad proves himself as strong military leader
         2. Finally Umayyad surrender, let Muslims visit Ka’ba
         3. 10,000 converts enter city, destroy idols, Mecca inhabitants convert
   3. Arabs and Muslims
      1. Why attractive to Arabs
         1. Form of monotheism that belonged to no single tribe
         2. Equal of other monotheistic faiths
         3. Allowed no intermediaries, priests
         4. End to vendettas, feuds – united
         5. Single, supernatural authority
         6. Turned violence against selves into violence against others
         7. Ethical system to live lives
            1. zakat – charity tax for poor
            2. Wealthy forbidden from overtaxing poor
         8. All aspects of life regulated to prepare for Judgement Day
   4. Universal Elements in Islam
      1. Why attractive to others outside of Arab world
         1. uncompromising monotheism
         2. highly developed legal codes
         3. egalitarianism
         4. strong sense of community
         5. most aspects similar to that of Judaism and Christianity
            1. Accepted older teachings, Muhammad just most recent divine instructions
      2. Five Pillars
         1. No god but Allah
         2. Pray five times a day facing Mecca
         3. fast during Ramadan
         4. Zakat for those in need
         5. Hajj - pilgrimage to Ka’ba to worship Allah
4. The Arab Empire of the Umayyads
   1. Initially, it looked like Islam might fail with Muhammad’s death
      1. Some renounced faith
      2. Other argued over secession
   2. Foreign expeditions took minds off of internal problems – how convenient
      1. Rather easily beat neighbors
         1. courage
         2. military prowess
         3. religious zeal
         4. weakness of border empires
      2. New lands/people ruled by Arab elite
   3. Consolidation and Division in the Islamic Community
      1. Muhammad gave no procedure for appointing successor – leader – caliph
         1. Ali – cousin and son-in-law too young
         2. Abu Bakr – earliest follower, closest friend
            1. courage, warmth, wisdom
            2. Knew genealogy of tribes – alliances
            3. Ridda Wars – defeated Bedouin tribes, brought under power of Islam
      2. Initially just raided for booty
         1. but…raids showed weakness of empires
         2. many residents tired of being merely vassals and frontier guardians for Persians/Byz
   4. Motives for Arab conquest
      1. Unity of faith gave them common cause
      2. Pent-up energy from warrior people
      3. booty – “bread and dates”
      4. not driven by desire to win converts – avoided mass conversions
         1. wanted tax money – that’s the key – need to keep people not Muslim
5. Weaknesses of the Adversary Empires
   1. Sasanian Empire of Persia
      1. Autocratic emperor manipulated by aristocrats
      2. Zoroastrianism – religion of emperor ignored by common people
      3. Delayed too long to realize threat, eventually fled east and were killed
   2. Byzantine Empire – stronger adversary
      1. defection of their own frontier Arabs
      2. Muslim invaders got support from Christians from Syria and Egypt
         1. Copts and Nestorians would rather be taxed less
      3. Muslims triumphed in early battles, would continue siege for centuries
6. The Problem of Succession and the Sunni-Shi’a Split
   1. Frustration over
      1. Centuries of personal animosities
      2. Who would control booty from victories
      3. Spark to conflict – murder of third caliph Uthman
         1. Uthman from Umayyad clan – remember the guys who wanted to assassinate Muham
   2. Ali – remember – the son-in-law of Muhammad
      1. Regains thrown – doesn’t punish assassins – war’s on
      2. Ali’s forces were winning, but he decides on mediation at Battle of Siffin
         1. Makes him look week, he loses some people from his side
         2. 660 Mu’awiya – Umayyads claim he is new caliph from Jerusalem
            1. Ali assassinated shortly after
            2. Son Husayn tries to regain power, but is abandoned by Iraqis and killed
      3. And now we have a feud
   3. Sunnis vs Shi’a
      1. Backers of Umayyads vs. backers of Ali
      2. Caliph goes through dominant clan vs. caliph goes through descendants of Muhammad
      3. Saddam Hussein is a Sunni but the the Shi’as have more people in Iraq today
7. The Umayyad Imperium
   1. Moves East and West
      1. Runs into conflict with Buddhism in East
      2. Goes into Spain and eventually stopped by Charles Martel at Poitiers in 732 in West
   2. Capital moved to Damascus, Syria – Arab/Muslim aristocracy ruled over non-Arabs/Muslims
      1. Tried to keep Muslims separate
         1. Part of military elite, moved to garrison towns
         2. Don’t want to lose taxes – remember Muslims can’t tax Muslims
8. Converts and “People of the Book”
   1. Well…the guys didn’t like being separated, and started intermarrying
      1. Mawali – Muslim converts still had to pay taxes
         1. Some even had to pay jizya – a surtax for nonbelievers – thanks, glad I converted
            1. Oddly enough, not that many people converted…hmmm…I wonder why
      2. Dhimmi – “People of the Book” – basically everyone else in the empire who believed in another religion other than Islam
         1. Muslim lords tolerated other religions…yeayyy taxes
9. Family and Gender Roles in the Umayyad Age
   1. Position of women actually pretty good, don’t confuse w/ life in Persian Empire
      1. Muhammad stressed importance of marriage, fatherhood – adultery illegal
      2. Husband can marry up to four wives, but must be able to support them all
      3. Got rid of infanticide, gave more property rights to women
      4. Many of women some of his strongest early followers – wife for instance
         1. Helped compile Qur’an, some even went along on campaigns
      5. Veiling isn’t mentioned, but one woman even said why cover, Allah made me this way
10. Umayyad Decline and Fall
    1. Umayyad caliph’s growing addiction to luxury and soft living – see Saddam Hussein in Dictionary
       1. Stopped fighting wars, built palaces – revolts start around empire
    2. Merv – don’t be scared by the name, but this is where the revolution begins
       1. 50,000 warriors had married local women – identified with region
       2. Rarely given share of booty
       3. Annoyed at Umayyad elite
       4. Annoyed that the Umayyads were sending in new troops – what…we’re not good enough?
       5. Marched under the Abbasid party banner
          1. Joined with the mawali – non-Arab converts
          2. Coalition of the willing defeated Umayyad caliph at Battle on the River Zab
          3. Invited the rest of the Umayyad family to a nice little get together
             1. Wrapped them in carpets and slaughtered them
             2. Hunted down the rest – kind of like in Revenge of the Sith, treatment of Jedis
             3. One guy made it out - Caliphate of Cordoba – in exile – like Yoda
11. From Arab to Islamic Empire: The Early Abbasid Era
    1. Abbasids less tolerant of Shi’ism sects
    2. Pushed for centralized, absolutist imperial order
       1. Jeweled thrones
       2. Expanded number of bureaucrats – sound like Han China anyone?
          1. Appointed a wazir – chief administrator – guy in charge of getting stuff done
          2. Royal executioner – guy in charge of getting bloody stuff done
          3. Able to collect revenue from far corners of empire, though further away harder
12. Islamic Conversion and Mawali Acceptance
    1. Toward end of Umayyad period, already starting to accept
       1. No longer dividing up booty – can this please be the last time I use the word booty
    2. Under Abbasid – mawalis given equal footing to first generation – can’t tell the difference
       1. No longer have to pay head tax for being non-Muslim
       2. Open to administrative careers – public life
          1. Even conquered Persians took on a greater role
13. Town and Country: Commercial Boom and Agrarian Expansion
    1. Merchant class wealth and social status improves – trade a priority***
       1. Afro-Eurasian trading resumes after Rome/China let it die
       2. Created super cool ships called dhows
       3. Muslims worked with Jews, Christians – trade never stops – no Sabbath conflicts
    2. Products – luxury products for elites
    3. Money reinvested in companies
       1. Share given to charity
       2. Created mosques, religious schools, baths, rest houses for weary
       3. Hospitals – best medical care in the world
    4. Increased handicraft production
       1. furniture, glassware, jewelry, tapestries/carpets – you know you’ve heard of Persian rugs
          1. workers had some rights – formed guilds, owned tools,
    5. Slaves do garbage jobs
       1. Urban is better – could actually work your way to freedom
       2. Rural/mining – oftentimes left to non-Muslim captures
    6. Landed elite emerges – ayan – both old money and new money (warriors)
14. The First Flowering of Islamic Learning
    1. Previously illiterate – ignorant of outside world
       1. Allows them to be open-minded, accept styles and approaches and creativity of the conquered
    2. First priority – preserving classical texts of Greece, Mediterranean, Middle East
       1. W/out Muslim and Jewish scholars – much of classical knowledge would be lost
       2. Traded ideas – Indian number system
15. Global connections
    1. Rise without precedent – first truly global civilization – nobody had heard of America yet, don’t count
       1. Patchwork of languages, religions, ethnic types
       2. Brought together agriculturalists, nomads, urban dwellers
    2. Commitment to trade and merchants
    3. Ideas from classical civilizations first preserved, then improved upon, then carried all over
16. Architecture – the mosque
    1. Borrowed from classical architecture
       1. Sometimes even used materials from destroyed churches/temples
    2. Couldn’t use animals/humans so focused on
       1. Geometric designs
       2. Colorful ceramic tiles
       3. Semiprecious stones
       4. Flower and plant motifs
       5. Qur’an passages swirling in Arabic

Chapter 7 Part II
Abbasid Decline and the Spread of Islamic Civilization to South and Southeast Asia

1. Introduction
   1. Mid 9th century losing control
      1. Rebellious governors
      2. new challenging dynasties
   2. …but still creative – ironically – a golden age without political stability
      1. architecture
      2. fine arts
      3. literature
      4. philosophy
      5. mathematics and science
   3. Territorial growth – warriors, traders, wandering mystics
      1. political conquest
      2. peaceful conversion
   4. Conduit for exchange – between urban/agrarian centers and between nomadic peoples
      1. ideas
      2. plants and medicines
      3. commercial goods
      4. inventions
2. The Islamic Heartlands in the Middle and Late Abbasid Eras
   1. Introduction – 3rd Abbasid caliph – al-Mahdi
      1. Courtly excesses > financial drain
         1. taste for luxury/monumental buildings
         2. surrounded self with wives, concubines, courtiers
      2. Political divisions
         1. continued Shi’a revolts and assassinations
      3. Problem of succession
         1. Son/successor poisoned
            1. Harun al-Rashid (786-809)
               1. most famous
               2. enduring
   2. Imperial Extravagance and Succession Disputes
      1. Extravagance amazed visitors
         1. Charlemagne impressed by mosques, palaces, treasures
         2. The Thousand and One Nights
            1. Luxury and palace intrigue/manipulations
      2. Throne at 23 – growing power of royal advisors
         1. signaled shift in power – court advisors now more important
         2. Now also power struggles between court factions
      3. Death of Harun al-Rashid led to civil war
         1. winning son had huge army
            1. started precedent of having “bodyguards”
            2. mercenary forces could reach 70,000
      4. Power shift now to military
         1. Between military and court, assassinations quite common
   3. Imperial Breakdown and Agrarian Disorder
      1. Caliphs try to move capitals away from Baghdad – kind of like Versailles
         1. Very expensive
         2. Cost of new palaces/capitals plus mercenary force = high taxes
         3. Peasant revolts caused from
            1. taxation
            2. pillaging
            3. Shi’a “encouragement”
   4. The Declining Position of Women in the Family and Society
      1. Remember Islamic world initially quite open to egalitarian treatment of women
      2. Harem – women kept in seclusion
         1. creation of Abbasid court
         2. win their freedom/gain power by bearing healthy sons
         3. some women became slaves
            1. But…slaves captured, purchased from non-Muslim regions
               1. prized for beauty and intelligence
               2. best educated men and women
               3. officials more attracted to slaves then wives sometimes
               4. more freedom than free women – no veils/robes
      3. Veil
         1. slaves – no veil/robes
         2. Upper class no career outlets beyond homes
            1. focused on interests of sons
         3. lower class women could actually farm, weave clothing, raise silkworms
   5. Nomadic Incursions and the Eclipse of Caliphal Power
      1. Kingdoms try to take over power
         1. 945 Buyids of Persia invade empire and captured Baghdad
         2. Took names of sultan – victorious
         3. 1055 Seljuk Turks – replaced Buyids
            1. Turks were Sunnis – purged Shi’a officials
            2. Kept Byzantines from taking over
            3. Lay foundations for Ottoman Empire
   6. The Impact of the Christian Crusades
      1. First Crusade 1096-1099 – most successful for Europeans
         1. Surpise + political divisions
         2. Europeans killed Muslim and Jewish inhabitants of Jerusalem
      2. 200 years of battle – but…had little effect on Muslim princes
      3. Saladin – Salau-ud-Din – reconquered territory
      4. Impact much greater on Christians – Muslims show little interest in the west
         1. Increased European borrowing
            1. weapons – damascene sword
            2. fortifications
            3. science/medicine
            4. recovered Greek learning
            5. mastered Arabic numerals
            6. Middle Eastern rugs/textiles
            7. names for different cloths – taffeta, muslin
            8. Popular culture
               1. Chess
               2. Troubadours/ballads
               3. food – dates, coffee, yogurt
3. The Age of Learning and Artistic Refinements
   1. Introduction
      1. Political divisions not that important – still successful artistically
      2. Remember – India/Western Europe also fragmented
      3. One of great ages in human ingenuity and creativity
      4. Expansion of professional classes
         1. Great fortunes to be made through trade
            1. Middle East > Mediterranean Europe
            2. Coastal India and island southeast Asia
            3. Overland caravan trade with China
      5. Artists and Artisans
         1. Mosques/palaces – larger more arnate
         2. Tapestries/rugs from Persians – rare
            1. exquisite designs
            2. vivid colors
            3. skill
         3. Fine bronzes/superb ceramics
   2. The Full Flowering of Persian Literature
      1. Persian caliphs, wives, concubines, advisors, bureaucrats
      2. Persian language became synonymous with “high culture”
         1. Language drafted by skilled cartographers
      3. Epic Poem – Shan-Nama – 10th/11th centuries
         1. History of Persia – battles, intrigues, love affairs
      4. Other topics – love affairs, every day life, striving to reach communion with divine
      5. Blend of mystical and commonplace
   3. Achievements in the Sciences
      1. First, preserved and compiled learning of ancient civilizations
      2. Math
         1. Second, made major corrections to algebraic/geometric theories
         2. Trigonometry – sine, cosine, tangent
      3. Science
         1. objective experiment
         2. classification – animal, vegetable, mineral
         3. weight of minerals
         4. astronomical tables
      4. Practical applications
         1. best hospitals – required formal examinations
         2. optics/bladder ailments
         3. From China trade
            1. perfected – papermaking, silk-weaving, ceramic firing
         4. best maps – cartography
   4. Religious Trends
      1. Key Theme of Muslim world **** Social strife and political divisions vs. trading links and intellectual creativity
      2. Mysticism gave vibrancy vs. orthodox religious scholars (ulama)
      3. Orthodox Muslims
         1. Gained prominence after Crusades
         2. suspected Greek learning – questioning
            1. threatened authority
         3. Qur’an – final, perfect, complete revelation
      4. Al-Ghazali tried to fuse Greek/Arab traditions
      5. Sufist movement
         1. Sufis – name from woolen robes
            1. great healers
            2. some led militant bands
            3. some bodily denial
            4. some used meditation, songs, drugs, dancing (dervishes)
            5. helped expand religion
         2. Personal union with Allah
         3. Reaction to abstract/impersonal divinity
         4. World illusory
   5. New Waves of Nomadic Invasions and the End of the Caliphate
      1. Abbasid domains divided as rival states grew
      2. Mongols under Chinggis Khan – 1220s
         1. Grandson – Hulegu continued
         2. Baghdad overthrown in 1258
            1. Cairo and Istanbul would become dominant city
         3. Defeated by Mamluks – Turkish slaves
4. The Coming of Islam to South Asia
   1. Introduction
      1. Religion carried by invaders, traders, migrants
      2. Hindus and Muslims came into contact/conflict
      3. India pattern of nomadic invaders
         1. those who remained usually assimilated
            1. Due to strength and flexibility of India’s civilizations
            2. Offered higher level of material culture than they had before
         2. Muslims – first to bring in religion and not want to change/assimilate
      4. Differences between Hindus and Muslims
         1. Hinduism – open, tolerant, inclusive of various forms, idol worship, meditation
         2. Islam – doctrinaire, proselytizing, exclusive worship of single god
         3. Socially – Islam egalitarian vs. Hindu caste, compartmentalized, more rigid
         4. So…religiously more restrictive vs. socially more restrictive
         5. Interactions – violent > trade > religious interchange > wary peace
   2. Political Divisions and the First Muslim Invaders
      1. First – 711 – Traders
         1. Arab seafarers
         2. Muhammad ibn Qasim – preemptive assault to punish attack on Arab trading
         3. Brought little change – embraced by some
            1. Lower taxes
            2. Greater religious toleration
            3. Local officials get to retain titles, keep running things
            4. Status of Brahman castes repected
         4. Arabs lived in cities/garrison towns – apart
         5. Same pattern as other parts – little attempt at first at conversion, few converted
   3. Indian Influences on Islamic Civilization
      1. Indian learning
         1. Hindu mathematics – algebra/geometry
            1. Use numerals of Hindu scholars
            2. This number critical to two scientific revolutions
         2. Medicine to music
            1. Physicians brought to Baghdad
            2. Arabian Nights tales maybe based on Indian stories
         3. Game of chess
      2. Indian dress, hairstyles, foods, rode on elephants
   4. From Booty to Empire: The Second Wave of Muslim Invasions
      1. Little territory added in centuries following Muhammad ibn Qasim
         1. But…Turkish slave dynasty? – 962
         2. Mahmud of Ghazni – series of expeditions
            1. Drawn by wealth
            2. Zeal to spread Muslim faith
            3. Defeated princes
         3. Muhammad of Ghur and Qutb-ud-din Aibak pushed territory further
      2. Capital becomes Delhi
         1. 300 year Muslim dynasties – sultans of Delhi
            1. Fought Mongol/Turk invaders
            2. Fought internally
            3. Fought Hindu princes
   5. Patterns of Conversion
      1. Interactions accommodating and peaceful
         1. Few converts won forcibly***
         2. Sufi mystics quite successful – similar to gurus – helped region
            1. Mosques/schools center of regional power
            2. Militias to help protect from bandits
            3. Cleared forests, helped with settlement
            4. Welcomed low caste/outcastes
            5. Charisma
      2. Most attractive to Islam?
         1. Buddhists
            1. Buddhism being corrupted by rituals/didn’t follow Buddha’s teachings
            2. Muslims raided Buddhist temples
            3. Some Buddhists – orgies/magic experiments
         2. Low-caste, untouchables, animistic tribal peoples
            1. Egalitarian
            2. Group conversions
         3. Desire to escape head tax
         4. Intermarriage
   6. Patterns of Accommodation
      1. Hindu community not really concerned with Islam initially
         1. Believed religion would soon be absorbed
      2. Hindus worked as administrators
      3. Muslims separated from Hindus
         1. Muslim communities
         2. sexual relations restricted
      4. Some Muslims adopted Hindu ways
         1. claimed divine descent
         2. minted coins with Hindu images
         3. socially divided Muslim communities along caste lines
         4. adopted customs
            1. Indian foods
            2. dress
            3. Pan – limestone wrapped in betel leaves
            4. Women treated poorly
               1. Married at early ages
               2. sati performed by upper caste Muslims
   7. Islamic Challenge and Hindu Revival
      1. Threatened by Islam
         1. Actively proselytizing religion
         2. Great appeal to large segments of the Indian population
      2. Hindu reaction – increasing popularity – extending methods of prayer/ritual
         1. Place greater emphasis on devotion to gods/goddesses
         2. bhaktic cults
            1. open to women/untouchables
            2. Mira Bai – writers of religious poetry
            3. saints from low-caste origins worshipped by all – brahmains down
               1. Kabir – saint who played down difference
         3. languages in vernacular
         4. chants, dances, drugs – spiritual intoxication
            1. state of ecstasy > attachment to gods – earthly life irrelevant
   8. Stand-Off: The Muslim Presence in India at the End of the Sultanate Period
      1. Brahmans took a more active role
         1. Denounced Muslims as infidel destroyers of Hind temples
         2. Denounced Muslims as polluted meat-eaters
      2. Muslims couldn’t be flexible
         1. Hinduism says some rituals optional – can’t be true for Islam
      3. Hindus remained majority
         1. Least converted/integrated of all the areas Muhammad’s message reached ***
5. The Spread of Islam to Southeast Asia
   1. Introduction
      1. Island southeast Asia usually a middle ground for trade
         1. Drop off Chinese products, Arab/Indian vessels pick up
         2. Goods from Sumatra
            1. aromatic woods
            2. spices, cloves, mace
         3. By 8th century – trade controlled by Muslims
            1. Elements of religion filtered slowly
            2. 13th century – Shrivijaya empire fell, Islams had full control
               1. Incentive now for trading centers to adopt faith
   2. Trading Contacts and Conversion
      1. Peaceful/voluntary conversion more common than force
         1. Merchants introduced rituals
            1. Stated most of known world already converted
         2. Port centers convert first
            1. Malacca converted – moved inland
            2. Trading links critical
               1. Enhance personal ties
               2. Common basis in law
               3. Eastern ports now culturally/economically linked
         3. Bali – Hinduism – remained impervious to Islam
         4. Mainland southeast Asia remained Buddhist
   3. Sufi Mystics and the Nature of Southeast Asian Islam
      1. Syncretism
      2. Spread by Sufis – mysticism
         1. Tolerated earlier animist, Hindu, Buddhist beliefs/rituals
         2. Many beliefs would be seen contrary to origins
            1. Women retained stronger position
            2. Markets dominated by female buyers/sellers
            3. Inheritance still matrilineal
            4. Fused Javanese puppet shows
6. Global Connections
   1. Political friction irrelevant, still a central focus for many continents
      1. Led to refinement of civilized life
      2. Fine arts, sciences and literature
   2. Conflicts left open fringes to European political expansion
   3. Growing orthodoxy – growing less receptive to outside influences
      1. Bad timing, Christian Europe entering stage of unprecedented curiosity, experimentation

Chapter 8
African Civilizations and the Spread of Islam

1. Introduction
   1. Mansa Musa – crossed Sahara on hajj
      1. wealth symbolized potential of Africa
   2. Sub-sahara never totally isolated
      1. But…for periods contact was difficult and intermittent
   3. Changes came from
      1. Arrival of Muhammad followers
         1. Commercial and military attributes
         2. changed by Islam, but retained individuality
         3. African culture not united
         4. provided major external contact between sub-Saharan Africa and world
   4. State building
      1. Mali, Songhay – created more from military power than ethnic/cultural unity
      2. Merchant city states on west/East coast
      3. Portugese in 15th century brought Africans into world economy more
      4. Bantu migration continued
      5. Societies don’t build so much on previous civilizations
2. African Societies: Diversities and Similarities
   1. Introduction
      1. Diverse – large centralized states to stateless societies
         1. Differences in geography, language, religion, politics
      2. Universalistic faiths penetrated continent
         1. but…universal states/religions don’t characterize history
   2. Stateless societies
      1. organized around kinship and other forms of obligation
      2. council of families
         1. or…secret societies of men/women
      3. little concentration of authority
         1. government – not a full-time job
         2. after internal dispute, you can always leave and form new village
      4. Unable to
         1. mobilize for war
         2. organize large building projects
         3. create stable conditions for long distance trade
   3. Common Elements in African Societies
      1. Even though different, similarities existed
         1. language – Bantu migration
         2. thought
         3. religion – animistic religion
            1. power of natural forces
            2. ritual and worship
            3. dancing, drumming, divination, and sacrifice
            4. witchcraft
            5. cosmology – how universe worked
            6. belief in creator deity
            7. saw selves as first settlers, land meant more than economic usefulness
            8. link of deceased ancestors
      2. Economies
         1. North Africa – fully involved in Mediterranean trade – quite different than rest
         2. Settled agriculture and skilled metalwork had spread
         3. Market life key for men and women
         4. Professional merchants controlled trade
      3. Population – least known – by 1500 – 30 to 60 million people
3. Arrival of Islam
   1. Land conquered and reconquered by Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals
      1. Cyrene and Carthage became huge trading centers
   2. 640-700 CE – Muslim followers spread across Africa
      1. by 670, controlled Ifriqiya – Tunisia > Africa
         1. Arabs called n.east Arica > Ifriqiya and west – Maghrib
      2. When Abbasid dynasty united – many conversions
         1. 11th century – Almoravids – ultra-conservative - reformers
            1. launched jihad – holy war to purify, spread, protect faith
            2. Almohadis – also reformers
               1. Return to original teachings of Muhammad
         2. Why attractive?
            1. Egalitarian teachings – all Muslims are equally
            2. Reinforced African kings authority
            3. Equal footing with Arab invaders
            4. …but
               1. Disparity between law and practice
4. The Christian Kingdoms: Nubia and Ethiopia
   1. Islands of Christianity left behind
   2. Christian Egyptians – Copts
      1. Traded with Byzantine Empire
      2. Eventually split with empire – doctrinal and political issues
         1. What differences
      3. Muslim invaders allowed them to keep religion – tolerance
         1. Met resistance in Kush/Nubia – couldn’t push Islam further
   3. Axum > Ethiopia – most important African Christian outpost
      1. Cut off, surrounded by pagans, influenced by Jewish/pagan immigrants
      2. Dynasty appeared – build rock sculptures
      3. Traced origins to marriage of Solomon and Sheba – Bible
      4. Maintained its brand of Christianity – isolated
      5. in 1542 Portugese expedition pushed back Muslim invaders
         1. But…couldn’t push Catholic faith, remained isolated
5. Kingdoms of the Grasslands
   1. Introduction
      1. Three coasts – Atlantic, Indian, savanna on edge of Sahara
      2. Edge of desert
         1. Gold found
         2. Camels improved trade
            1. Sahel – grassland belt – best place to live – centers of trade
         3. African states emerge as trade intermediaries
         4. Location makes them open to droughts and attack
         5. 10th century Ghana rose to power through taxing salt, gold exchange
   2. Sudanic States
      1. Patriarch or council of elders
         1. Power over subordinate communities
            1. Collect taxes, tribute, military support
         2. States emerge – Ghana, Mali, Songhay
      2. Rulers separated from commoners through ritual – think “mandate of heaven”
   3. The Empire of Mali and Sundiata, the “Lion Prince”
      1. Mali – 13th century – Malinke broke away from Ghana
         1. Rulers supported Islam – encouraged obedience to ruler
            1. built mosques
            2. attended public prayers
            3. supported preachers
         2. juula – traders
         3. Sundiata – Sunjata – brilliant leader
            1. Lion Prince – expaned Mali
            2. Originator of social arrangements – divided into clans – castelike
               1. 16 free to bear arms, 5 religious, 4 blacksmiths
            3. Created peace through loyalty, severely punished crimes
               1. Security of traders key to survival
               2. Ibn Batuta – Arab traveler – noted impressive security
         4. Mansa Musa – 1324 trip to Mecca – awesome, impressive
            1. passed out gold – devalued
            2. brought back Ishak al-Sahili architect – great Mosque of Jenne
   4. City Dwellers and Villagers
      1. Cities flourished – Timbuktu and Jenne
         1. Mosque, library, university
         2. Book trade
         3. Difficult life – soil sandy and shallow
            1. Clearing land done communally
            2. Polygamy for the purpose of having more labor
         4. irrigation in Timbuktu
   5. The Songhay Kingdom – middle Niger Valley
      1. “masters of the soil” and “masters of the waters”
      2. 1370, Songhay broke from Mali – gold trade
      3. Sunni Ali – ruthless, tactical commander
         1. Expanded borders, created administration
      4. Mid-16th century Songhay dominated Sudan
      5. Familiar pattern – created unique brand of Islam
         1. pagan/Muslim beliefs both believed
            1. fusion, priests still need to work with local spirits
         2. local interpretation of Muslim law
         3. woman mixed freely in public, no veil
      6. Downfall when Muslim army from Morocco came down > this led to revolts
      7. Muslim role in city
         1. Came as merchants – joined communities
         2. Though minorities, became elite
            1. Located throughout west Africa, but no Islamicized state
         3. Intermarriage took place
   6. Political and Social Life
      1. Large states represented goals of elite family/group
      2. Islam served many groups
         1. Common religion/law united
         2. Trust to merchants
         3. leaders took names emir/caliph to reinforce authority
         4. as advisors/scribes – Muslims helped with administration
         5. maintained theocracy – spiritual and political leader
         6. with new states came increased social differences
      3. Adjustment
         1. Women
            1. Many societies matrilineal
               1. But…Sharia…Islamic law says it must be patrilineal
               2. Many visitors shocked at African women’s equality
            2. Impact of slavery –
            3. 8 > 7 million traded
               1. Always existed, Muslims brought it to new heights
                  1. Muslims saw slavery as process in conversion
               2. Used as servants, laborers, soldiers, administrators, eunuchs, concubines
                  1. Led to desire to enslave women and children
                  2. Children of slave mothers freed
                     1. Need for more slaves
6. The Swahili Coast of East Africa
   1. Introduction
      1. Indian Ocean coast – center for Islamic influence
         1. string of Islamicized trading cities – why?
            1. universal set of ethics
            2. maritime contacts easier
      2. Compromise between indigenous ways and new faith
   2. The Coastal Trading Port
      1. Founding – Bantu people from 1st century to 10th century
         1. Even Indonesia and Malay in 2nd century- bananas/coconuts on Madagascar
         2. Fishers, farmers made rough pottery & iron
      2. 13th century – urbanized trading ports – at least 30 port towns
         1. Shared Swahili language
         2. Contained mosques, tombs, palaces cut of stone and coral
         3. Exported ivory, gold, iron, slaves, exotic animals
         4. Imported silks – Persia, porcelain – China
         5. Sofala – beautiful coastal city, gold access, furthers south to catch monsoon
            1. Riding the monsoon season key to trading in Indian Ocean]
         6. link to coastal commerce and caravan trade
         7. Chinese sailing expeditions – 1417 > 1431 – big boats – National Geographic
   3. Mixture of Cultures – Islam fused with local religions – not entirely accepted
      1. 13th century – great Islamic expansion
         1. Trust and law to facilitate trade
         2. Ruling families built mosques and palaces
         3. Claimed to be descendants of Persian ruling familes
            1. Gave rule legitimacy
         4. Rulers and merchants Muslim, but others retained beliefs
      2. Swahili language – Bantu + Arabic words
         1. Arabic script used
      3. Islam didn’t penetrate internally
         1. Class based
      4. Women – some still were matrilineal, some patrilineal
      5. 1500 Portuges arrive
         1. Wanted to control gold trade
         2. Established Fort Jesus, but couldn’t control trade
7. Peoples of the Forest and Plains
   1. Introduction
      1. Internally – following own trajectories independently
         1. Some herding, some agricultural
         2. Some small villages, some larger states
      2. Most preliterate – knowledge, skills, traditions through oral methods
         1. But…could still make strides in arts, building and statecraft
   2. Artists and Kings: Yoruba and Benin
      1. Nigeria, Nok
         1. Terra cotta/bronze realistic/stylized art
            1. portrait heads of rulers
         2. Long gap in history
      2. Yoruba
         1. Agricultural society led by ruling family/aristocracy
         2. City Ile-Ife
         3. Spoke non-Bantu language
         4. Small city-states, regional kings
         5. Urbanized nature similar to city-states of Italy/Germany
      3. Benin – Edo peoples
         1. Ivory/bronze art – sculptures
            1. Some even included Portugese soldiers
         2. Ruler in large royal compound
   3. Central African Kingdoms
      1. South of rain forest near Lake Victoria
      2. State formation replaced kinship based societies
         1. Rituals reinforced ruler’s power
         2. Luba peoples - believed leaders controlled fertility of humans/agricult.
   4. The Kingdom of Kongo and Mwene Mutapa
      1. Kongo
         1. Art – weaving, pottery, blacksmithing
         2. Sharp division of labor
      2. Farther east – Bantu confederation – built royal courts of stone
         1. zimbabwes – stone houses – Great Zimbabwe most famous
            1. Some even believed Phoenicians – prejudices
         2. Mwene Mutapa
            1. Controlled gold, glass beads, porcelain trade
            2. Iron weapons
8. Global Connections
   1. Reality – more written records in Sudanic states and Swahili coast – Islam
   2. Synthesis of African/Islamic values changed some Africans lives
   3. Portugese arrived in 15th century
   4. Muslims and Portugese intensified trade of ivory, slaves and gold
      1. Widened trade and global relations

Chapter 9
Civilization in Eastern Europe: Byzantium and Orthodox Europe

1. Introduction
   1. Two major civilizations
      1. Byzantine – Orthodox Christianity
         1. Maintained high level of political, economic, cultural life
         2. Leaders saw selves as Roman Emperors
         3. Empire lasted for 1000 years until Turkish invaders
         4. Constantinople – most opulent, important city in Europe
         5. Spread civilization to previously uncivilized areas
            1. Russia, Balkans
            2. Russia inherits empire from Byzantine
      2. West – Catholicism
   2. Similarities
      1. Both influenced by Islam
      2. Both civilizations spread northward
      3. Polytheism gave way to monotheism
         1. Some syncretism – old religious beliefs maintained
      4. Northern areas struggled for political definition
      5. New trading activities – N. South
      6. Looked back to Greco-Roman past – borrowed
   3. Differences
      1. Different, sometimes hostile versions of Christianity
      2. Little mutual contact
         1. Trade didn’t go east/west
      3. East more advanced politically, culturally, economically
2. The Byzantine Empire
   1. Origins of the Empire
      1. 4th century CE – eastern capital Constantinople - Constantine
         1. elegant buildings
         2. Christian churches
         3. Greek becomes used language – Latin looked at as inferior
         4. High levels of commerce
         5. Recruited armies from barbarians
         6. Emperor kept separate
   2. Justinian’s Achievements
      1. 533 – a “moron” tried to reconquer western territory
      2. Successes
         1. Rebuilding Constantinople – architecture – Hagia Sophia
         2. Codification of Roman Law
            1. reduced confusion
            2. organized empire
            3. spread Roman legal principles
         3. W/ general Belisarius – conquered N. Africa
      3. Failures
         1. Unable to take/hold Italian empire
         2. Westward expansion weakened his empire
            1. Persian forces attacked from East
            2. New tax pressure
   3. Arab Pressure and the Empire’s Defenses
      1. New focus after Justinian – defending boundaries
         1. Withstood invasions of Arab Muslims in 7th century
            1. Greek fire devastated Arab ships
            2. Even though victory, but…
               1. constant threat on borders
               2. new economic burdens
               3. less power for farmers > greater power to aristocratic generals
      2. Slavic kingdoms – Bulgaria – pushed on empire
         1. Marriages and military success helped unite regions
         2. 1014 – Bulgaroktonos – defeated Bulgaria
            1. Became most powerful monarch on earth
            2. Capital city had awesome buildings, entertainment
   4. Byzantine Society and Politics
      1. Similar to early China
         1. ordained by God – head of church and state
         2. passed religious and secular laws
         3. Elaborate court rituals
            1. Kept separate
            2. Immobilized rulers, prevented innovativeness
      2. …but, women held imperial throne
         1. Theodora – daughter or emperor, but refused to marry heir, sister did
            1. Forced to live in monastery
            2. Claimed control in 70
               1. Checked power of unruly nobles
                  1. Limited bureaucratic corruption
                  2. Severely retaliated against political enemies
      3. Maintaining order
         1. Bureaucrats
            1. Trained in Greek classics, philosophy and sciences
            2. Recruited from all social classes
         2. Officials close to emperor – eunuchs
         3. Provincial leaders appointed from center
         4. Spies everywhere
         5. Military organization
            1. Recruit and offer land
            2. Military leaders could gain regional powr
         6. Economically – hands on
            1. Controlled food prices/regulated trade
            2. Prices kept artificially low for urban rich
            3. Trade – silk production, luxury goods – only China’s could compete
               1. But merchants didn’t gain a lot of prestige, power
            4. Cultural life
               1. Relatively conservative – little innovation
               2. Art and architecture
                  1. adapted Roman domed buildings
                  2. religious mosaics
                  3. icon painting
                     1. blue and gold backgrounds + richly dressed figures
                     2. brilliance of heaven
                     3. led to iconoclast movement – should they be destroyed
   5. The Split Between East and West
      1. Different focus
         1. East economic orientation, link to Asia more than Europe
      2. Disagreement
         1. papal attempts to interfere over icons
         2. Charlemagne claims to be Roman emperor
         3. Rituals in Latin, not Greek
         4. pope as first bishop
         5. religious art
         6. celibacy for priests
      3. 1054 Schism – split between Roman Church and Eastern Orthodox
   6. The Empire’s Decline
      1. Invasion – 11th century – Seljuk Turks
         1. Cut off source of tax revenue
         2. Cut off food supplying territory
      2. Creation of independent Slavic kingdoms
      3. During Crusades – Italian merchant cities – Venice – gained trading advantages
      4. 1453 – Turkish sultan brought army w/ artillery
      5. Importance
         1. Anchored vital corner of Mediterranean
         2. Key trading contacts
         3. Maintained classical learning
         4. Spread Christian learning
3. The Spread of Civilization in Eastern Europe
   1. Introduction
      1. Contacts with Russia due to missionary activity and trade routes
      2. Regional kingdoms formed
      3. Brought to an end by Mongol invasions
      4. Missionaries
         1. Cyril and Methodius – created written script for language
         2. Slavic alphabet – Cyrillic
         3. ***Difference – religion allowed to have vernacular/local languages – not Latin
   2. The East Central Borderlands
      1. Balkans – area of competition between east and western political models
      2. Moderately active trade and industry
      3. Influx of Jews
         1. barred from agriculture
         2. resented by Christian majority
         3. forced to take commerce jobs
         4. emphasis on education and literacy
         5. able to govern selves
         6. developed distinguished culture
   3. The Emergence of Kievan Rus’
      1. Byzantine influence formative period for Russian civilization, but nothing yet
      2. Early culture in this region
         1. Animist
         2. Strong family tribes/villages
         3. folk music, oral legend
         4. Maintained animist religion – gods of sun, thunder, wind and fire
      3. Scandinavian traders set up trade stop at Kiev
         1. monarchy emerged
         2. Rurik, Denmark native, became first monarch
         3. Russia – Greek word for “red” – hair color of Norse traders
         4. Vladimir I – 980-1015 – converted to Christianity, and on behalf of people
            1. Constantine/Theodisius all in one
            2. Forced conversions
            3. Chose Orthodox instead of Roman Catholicism
               1. reject influence of pope
               2. not accept a religion that forbade alcohol
               3. splendor of Orthodox religious ceremonies
            4. Became largest state in Europe – though decentralized
               1. Created formal law codes
   4. Institutions and Culture in Kievan Rus’
      1. Kievan Rus could not replicate Byzantine
         1. bureaucracy
         2. elaborate educational system
      2. Borrowed from Byzantine
      3. devotion to power of God/saints
      4. ceremonies and luxury
      5. ornate churches
      6. monogamy replaced polygamy
      7. almsgiving – obligation to poor
      8. Russian literature
         1. mixture of religious and royal events
         2. tone of God being wrathful due to wickedness and then saving the day
      9. art – icons, illuminated manuscripts
      10. religious art rivaled by local music, street performers, theater
          1. social structure
          2. fairly free farmers
          3. boyars – aristocrats – less political power
   5. Kievan Decline
      1. Rival princes set up regional governments
      2. Rapid decline of Byzantium
         1. relied on prosperity/manufacturing of southern neighbor
      3. 1237-1241 Mongol Invasion
         1. Tatars control – two centuries
            1. literature languished
            2. trade lapsed
            3. north-south commerce never returned
            4. left day to day control to locals
      4. When Constantinople falls in 1453, Russia claims throne of east European leadership
         1. “third, new Rome”
   6. The End of an Era in Eastern Europe
      1. After Turks, Mongols – Eastern Europe fell on hard times
         1. East and West on different trajectories
            1. Western Europe free from outside control
            2. West continued focus on political, economic, cultural advancement
      2. Christianity remained
      3. Church-state relations remained
      4. Pride in artistic culture remained
4. Global Connections
   1. Byzantine Empire key – Constantinople key trading city
   2. Russia became dependent on Constantinople
   3. With coming of Mongols – led to unusual isolation

Chapter 10
A New Civilization Emerges in Western Europe

1. Introduction
   1. Middle Ages – Medieval
      1. Gradual recovery from Rome’s collapse
      2. Growing interaction with other societies
   2. Spread of religious beliefs
      1. Most polytheistic converted from Christianity
      2. Some continued to believe in magic/supernatural spirits
   3. Knowledge from trade/invaders
      1. Tools for new crops
      2. European paper factory
      3. Arabs – math, science, philosophy
   4. Took more from other nations than contributed – one-sided trade
   5. Two Images
      1. Prejudice toward Europe – big, smelly, hairy lugs
         1. Newer to civilization
         2. Economy less advanced
         3. Manners less polished
      2. Flashes of brilliance
         1. Thomas Aquinas – sum up knowledge of man, God, nature
2. Stages of Postclassical Development
   1. Rome’s decline affected
      1. Italy fragmented
      2. commerce shrinking
      3. Spain in hands of Muslims
      4. Frequent invasions – Viking raids
      5. Weak rulers
      6. Subsistence agriculture
      7. Literacy restricted to hierarchy/monasteries
         1. No additions, merely copied old manuscripts
         2. Couldn’t understand a lot of the philosophy they copied
   2. The Manorial System: Obligations and Allegiances
      1. Manorialism – economic/political relation between lord and peasants
      2. Serfs
         1. lived on self-sufficient manors
         2. received protection/justice from lords
            i. Military force
         3. gave part of goods/crops to lord
         4. worked monthly on lord’s land
         5. some could escape
            i. move to city/become wanderers
            1. production low – limited equipment
               1. Moldboard – curved metal
               2. Three-fold system – fallow
         6. Obligations
            1. For labor and land received
               1. ownership of houses
               2. pass property rights to children
   3. The Church: Political and Spiritual Power
      1. Only solid, stable organization in Western Europe
         1. Copied structure of Roman Empire
            1. Pope – Rome – top authority
            2. Regional bishops
            3. Supervised local priests
         2. Role of pope
            1. regulate doctrine
            2. beat back heresies
            3. sponsored missionary activity
         3. Conversions of leaders oftentimes to legitimate authority
         4. Monasteries
            1. prayer/religious discipline
            2. developed monastic rules – Benedict of Nursia
            3. Helped improve cultivation of land
            4. Provided some education/promoted literacy
   4. Charlemagne and His Successors
      1. Northern France – Carolingians overtook Franks
         1. Charles Martel – Battle of Tours 732 – pushed back Muslims/stopped Spain
         2. Charles the Great – Charlemagne
            1. Substantial empire in France/Germany
            2. Restored church-based education
            3. Intellectual activity gradually restored
            4. Upon death, split empire among 3 grandsons
            5. Successors useless
         3. Political history from here became regional monarchies
            1. no single language
               1. Separate languages led to national identities - difference
            2. cultural unity around Church
         4. Holy Roman Emperors for German/Italian section
            1. Rule hollow, means little, regional lords still controlled
   5. New Economic and Urban Vigor
      1. New sources of strength
         1. new agricultural techniques
            1. three-field
            2. moldboard plow
            3. horse collar – almost as cool as the world famous Chinese ox collar
         2. dominance of lord/knights – horse collar and stirrups
         3. Viking raids slowed down
            1. Christianized
            2. Regional government stronger
      2. All led to population growth
         1. Led to new markets
         2. Look to eastern lands not previously converted to agriculture
         3. Loosen bonds of serfdom
         4. trade with others led to new crops
      3. Growth of towns
         1. Literacy spread
         2. Professional entertainers – new songs, tricks – the lovely bear-baiting
         3. Monastic schools/hospitals
         4. Merchant activity/craft production
      4. Improved cultural life
         1. Universities next to cathedrals
         2. Taught philosophy and theology
   6. Feudal Monarchies and Political Advances
      1. Feudal relationships
         1. Military elites
            1. Could afford horses/iron weaponry/training
         2. Greater lords then controlled vassals and then they controlled lesser vassals
         3. These feudal relationships could be expanded
         4. Charlemagne took to next level, granted land for allegiance
      2. Bad - Inhibited strong central states
         1. Good - Reduced regional warfare
      3. Kings used feudalism to build power – administration/bureaucracy would follow
         1. France – 14th century – king had Church pay tax
            1. Previously Church was exempt from tax on property
      4. William the Conqueror – 1066- England had unique form of feudalism
         1. great lords tied to king
         2. Royal officials called Sheriff – think Robin Hood
         3. Bureaucracy filled with urban business/professional people
   7. Limited Government
      1. Power of Church limited political claims
      2. Aristocrats – powerful independent voice
         1. Magna Carta – nobles forced King John in 1215 to sign rights
         2. Led to creation of Parliament
            1. House of Lords - nobles
            2. House of Commons – wealthy businessmen
            3. Held power of taxation – could prevent/enable King warfare
      3. Parliaments elsewhere represent Three Estates – church, nobles, urban leaders
      4. Saw war as key to settling problems – Hundred Years War prime example
   8. TheWest’s Expansionist Impulse
      1. Causes
         1. Population growth
         2. Missionary impulse
         3. Righteous zeal provided by Christianity
      2. Expulsion of Muslims in 1492
      3. Germanic knights pushed east – Germany and Poland
      4. Pushed to Greenland, Canada
      5. Crusades
         1. Pope Urban II – indulgences – fight for God, reclaim holy land
            1. forgiveness of sins
            2. ensured entry to heaven
            3. spoils from rich Arabs
            4. Thirst for excitement
            5. facilitate Christian pilgrim’s visits
            6. Venice – save commercial rites
            7. attacking Jews
         2. Opened to economic/cultural influence of Middle East
   9. Religious Reform and Evolution
      1. Church started to focus on landholdings/political interests
      2. Reform Movements
         1. Franciscans poverty/service
         2. St. Clare of Assisi – represented new spirit of purity/dedication
         3. Pope Gregory VII
            1. insisted on holy character of priesthood
            2. priests stay unmarried
            3. free Church from state control
               1. Avoid investiture – state appointment of bishops
            4. Church wanted to control/judge heresies
   10. High Middle Ages
       1. High mark 12th and 13th centuries
       2. Dominance of Christianity vs. vitality/diversity of university life
       3. Agricultural existence vs. growing cities/merchants
3. Western Culture in the Postclassical Era
   1. Theology: Assimilating Faith and Reason
      1. Dark Ages – knowledge was gathering quotes, little creativity
      2. 1000 forward – attempt to prove God’s existence
      3. Also…attempt to prove errors of church leaders
         1. Peter Abelard – defiant attitude – logical contradictions of faith
            1. Bernard of Clairvaux – monk – faith alone is enough
            2. Relied heavily on faith of Bible, like Muslims and Qur’an
   2. New Universities
      1. Intellectual vitality – university education led to higher jobs
         1. Unlike China, success not tied into bureaucratic system directly
      2. Students actually paid teachers directly sometimes
   3. Thomas Aquinas
      1. Faith came first
      2. Through reason, humans could find order
      3. His Summas used logic to eliminate objections
         1. Scholasticism – logic to absurd degrees – can you prove anything logically?
            1. Consider Zeno’s paradox – nothing new
   4. Emphasis on previous learning, but some exceptions
      1. Roger Bacon – optics – added to Muslim learning
         1. Eyeglasses
   5. Popular Religion
      1. Little known of how people actually practiced
      2. Religious devotion expanded
         1. City religious groups formed
         2. Veneration of Mary – merciful side of Christianity
         3. worship of saints
      3. But…continued to believe in magical rituals
         1. Pagan festivals
         2. Even…dancing and merriment
   6. Religious Themes in Art and Literature
      1. Christian art reflected popular outlook and formal religious theology
         1. Goal – serve the glory of God
         2. Depicted saints
         3. Used stylized figures
         4. Medieval life as backdrops
         5. Stained glass designs for churches
      2. Gothic Architecture
         1. Combined Muslim design and Western engineering
         2. Gothic
            1. Soaring spires
            2. Tall arched windows – cast to heavens
         3. Proved
            1. Growing technical skill
            2. Ability to tax, central gov’t
            3. Patient labor
         4. Medieval Literature
            1. Mostly Latin, but vernacular writing emerged
               1. Similar to India – Sankrit, but the people read Hindi
            2. Oral sagas, adventure stories
            3. Showed conflict
               1. Christian values vs. richness/coarseness of life
            4. Love became first new value pursued
            5. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales – has naughty stories that poke fun at institutions
4. Changing Economic and Social Forms in the Postclassical Centuries
   1. West became a commercial zone
      1. Italian merchants actively sought cloth from North
      2. Northern cities became centers for Western exchange/markets for exotic products
   2. New Strains in Rural Life
      1. Most nobles disproved of commerce/some embraced
      2. Lord want better conditions, tax higher
         1. Some serfs can get paid
         2. Led to conflicts – peasant uprisings
            1. Frustration over gap between lord and peasant
   3. Growth of Trade and Banking
      1. Urban growth
         1. specialized manufacturing
         2. increased commercial activities
         3. greater trade
         4. banking introduced
      2. Rising trade
         1. Wanted luxury goods
         2. Wanted spices – flavor, preservation, medicinal value
         3. Timber/grain from N. Europe to mfg goods from S. Europe
         4. Hanseatic League – Scandinavian cities
      3. Jewish businessmen became money lenders
      4. Trade, bankers, merchants all pushed for capitalism
         1. Jacque Coeur – famed merchant – made a ton, lost a ton
      5. Merchants
         1. Not as wealthy/adventuresome as Muslims
         2. But…because of weak govts they had more power
            1. Developed rather independently from gov’t
      6. Guilds – relatively independent from state – like labor unions today
         1. limit membership
         2. control apprenticeships
         3. discouraged new methods of mfg – goal security not innovation
         4. guaranteed quality
         5. members had status in local affairs
         6. statutes/rules enforced by municipal gov’ts
      7. Clock making – technology, schedule of church services
      8. Most people peasants though, some moved to city – year and a day rule
      9. Economic values – still what’s best for group
   4. Limited Sphere for Women
      1. Christian religion
         1. Equality of souls
         2. Women’s monastic groups – convents
         3. Veneration of Mary, religious saints
         4. But…Eve as cause of original sin
      2. Compared to Islam
         1. less confined to household
         2. less segregated in church services – but couldn’t lead
      3. Urban women had role in commerce
         1. Could operate/run guilds
      4. Literature stressed women as docile/supportive/chivalry
5. Decline of the Medieval Synthesis
   1. End of Medieval Era
      1. Monarchies consolidated holdings – combined
      2. Hundred Years’ War
         1. Futility of military methods
            1. Paid armies better than knights
            2. Ordinary archers better/cheaper
            3. Castles ridiculous to gunpowder
         2. Futility of feudalism
      3. Sources of vitality ending
         1. Agriculture can’t keep up with population growth
            1. lands used up
            2. no new technology
            3. led to several famines
         2. Series of devastating plagues
            1. Black Death
         3. Social disputes – peasant uprisings
      4. But…manufacturing and mining increases
   2. Signs of Strain
      1. Land owning aristocracy fading
         1. But still keeping ceremony and chivalry – looks silly though
      2. Church losing power
         1. Church focused on political involvement/loses spiritual side
         2. Gov’ts gain power, start taxing Church
      3. Breakdown of intellectual/artistic synthesis
         1. Now when people speak, it could be called heresy
         2. Art now focuses on human figures, less spiritual
   3. The Postclassical West and Its Heritage
      1. Improvements after 900
         1. population
         2. trade
         3. cities
         4. intellectual activity
         5. universities
         6. Gothic art
         7. government based on feudal/Church relations
      2. Imitation of surrounding regions – especially Islam
      3. Divided rule resembled feudal Japan and feudal Africa
6. Global Connections
   1. Early part – danger of invasions – Vikings
   2. Fear of Islam, threat – considered dangerously false religion
   3. Problem…much to be learned from this “threat”
   4. Europe tried to benefit from this knowledge exchange, while reducing threat

Chapter 11
The Americas on the Eve of Invasion

1. Introduction
   1. By 1500, Americas densely populated by Indians – misnomer – Columbus/Indies
      1. Term has meaning only when used to apply to non-Indians
   2. Mesoamerica and Andean heartland
      1. Imperial states in place when Europe arrives
      2. Few areas influenced by two main centers
      3. Areas that developed independently
2. Postclassic Mesoamerica
   1. Introduction
      1. Toltecs/Aztecs replace Mayas of 8th century CE
         1. By 15th century Aztecs created extensive empire – war, religion, agrarian
      2. Downfall of Mayans – Teotihuacan
         1. Nomads from North come down
         2. Toltec Culture – 968 established capital Tula
            1. Sedentary/agrarian peoples with militaristic ethic
            2. Cult of sacrifice/war
            3. Aztecs saw Toltecs as givers of civilization
   2. The Toltec Heritage
      1. Leader Topilitzin followed Quetzalcoatl – feathered serpent
      2. Empire spread over much of central Mexico
      3. 1000 Conquered Chichen Itza – Mayans under control of Toltecs
      4. Toltec influence northward
         1. Trade turquoise with American Southwest
         2. How far – to Mississippi/Ohio – debatable evidence
            1. Stepped temples – Monk’s Mound
            2. Ritual sacrifice
            3. pottery
            4. Social stratification
            5. Large city – Cahokia could handle 30,000 people
   3. The Aztec Rise to Power – eagle with serpent on cactus
      1. Geography – aquatic environment – chinampas
         1. Aztecs/Mexicas won control of lake
         2. Nomadic tribes or agricultural culture
      2. Political structure – centralized city with tributary city-states
      3. Military – tough warriors/fanatic followers of religion
      4. 1428 emerged as independent power
   4. The Aztec Social Contract
      1. Subject peoples
         1. Pay tribute, surrender lands, military service
         2. King civil power/god on earth
      2. Stratified society
         1. Histories rewritten
      3. Human sacrifice – cult of military class supplying war captives as sacrifices
   5. Religion and the Ideology of Conquest
      1. Incorporated features from past Mesoamerican religions
         1. Little distinction between world of gods and natural world
         2. Deities – fire, rain, water, corn, sky, sun – pantheon
            1. Gods of fertility/agriculture
            2. Creator deities
            3. Warfare and sacrifice
         3. Female form for all gods
      2. Yearly festivals/ceremonies
         1. Expansive calendar
      3. Sacrifice - to energize the sun god – needed nourishment of human blood
         1. Types and frequency/degree changed with Aztecs – borrowed from Toltec
         2. religious conviction vs. political control
      4. Religious questions – afterlife, good life, do gods exist
      5. Art has flowers/birds/song and blood
   6. Tenochtitlan: The Foundation of Heaven
      1. Metropois – central zone of palaces/whitewashed temples
      2. Adobe brick residential districts
      3. Larger houses for nobility
      4. Zoos, gardens for king
      5. Geographically connected to island by four causeways
      6. Calpulli ruled neighborhoods
   7. Feeding the People: The Economy of the Empire
      1. Mass population needed to be fed
         1. Tribute
         2. Irrigated agriculture – chinampas – floating islands
            1. 20,000 acres
            2. High crop yields – 4 times a year – corn/maize
      2. Trade
         1. Regular intervals to market
         2. Barter or cacao beans/gold for currency
         3. Pochteca – long distance trade
      3. State controlled distribution of tribute
         1. Primarily redistributed to nobility
3. Aztec Society in Transition
   1. Widening Social Gulf
      1. Life based on calpulli (neighborhood) groups
         1. Governed by council of family heads
      2. Nobility came from heads of calpullis
      3. Military leaders based on success in taking captives
         1. Ritual warfare – uniforms
      4. As society grew, widening social disparity – no longer egalitarian (hmmm…where have I seen this pattern before?)
         1. Scribes, artisans, healers between peasants and nobility
      5. But…competition not between social classes, but between corporate groups
   2. Overcoming Technological Constraints
      1. Role of women – relatively equal, but subordinate to men
         1. Peasant women – fields, child-rearing
         2. Revered as weavers
         3. Polygamy among nobility, monogamy among poor
         4. Could inherit property
      2. Limits of technology
         1. Women – six hours a day grinding corn/maize
            1. Couldn’t be freed from 30-40 hours of preparing food
      3. Controlled vast number of people amazingly –
      4. 5 million to 25 million
   3. A Tribute Empire
      1. Most power in hands of Aztec ruler and chief advisor
         1. “elected” from best siblings of royal family
      2. As time passed, ritual sacrifice/military dominated all elements of life
      3. City-states – as long as they made tribute – they could have autonomy
      4. Weaknesses
         1. Rise of nobles altered dynamics
         2. Society based on system of terror
      5. By 1500, Aztec society was in the down, military period – height far earlier
4. Twantinsuyu: World of the Incas
   1. Inca Empire – Twantinsuyu – highly centralized
      1. Integrated various ethnic groups
      2. Irrigated agriculture
      3. Incorporated elements of previous civilizations – agriculture/religion/metallurgy
      4. Introduction
         1. Genius for state organization/bureaucratic control
         2. When central authority broke down, regional leaders took over
            1. war between rival chiefdoms
   2. The Inca Rise to Power
      1. Inca “ruler” – military alliances and campaigns to take over
      2. Subsequent rulers with names you’ll never remember expanded and consolidated land
         1. Between 9 and 13 million people under rule
   3. Conquest and Religion
      1. Reason for conquest
         1. economic gain
         2. political power
      2. religion – cult of ancestors
         1. deceased rulers mummified
      3. split inheritance
         1. leader’s power goes to successor
         2. leader’s property goes to male family
      4. political and social life related to religion
         1. holy shrines – stones, mountains, rivers, caves, tombs – huacas
            1. Prayers/human sacrifices
         2. Temple of the Sun – center of state religion
   4. The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule
      1. Leader/inca considered a god
      2. Court also temple
      3. Four provinces ruled by governor, power then divided further
         1. Local rulers could remain autonomous if they were loyal
      4. All nobles played role in state bureaucracy
         1. Nobles gained privileges, had a lot to lose
         2. Could wear large ear spools – orejones – gee thanks
      5. Spread language – unified
      6. System of roads with way stations – tambos – one day apart
      7. For labor, people benefited from large, expensive work projects – only central gov’t can provide
         1. State-sponsored irrigation made cultivation possible
      8. Instead of tribute, they wanted labor
      9. Relation between men and wome
         1. Needed to stay close
         2. Women link to the moon
      10. Downfall
          1. Marriage alliances created rivals for the throne – ahhh…that whole succession problem rears its ugly head
   5. Inca Cultural Achievements
      1. Art – built on styles of predecessor peoples
         1. Metallurgy – gold/silver/bronze, copper
         2. Pottery/cloth
      2. But…No system of writing…No wheel
      3. Math
         1. Knotted strings quipo to count
      4. Infrastructure – greatest achievement
         1. land/water management
         2. extensive road systems
         3. Architecture and public buildings
         4. Terraced farming on steep slopes
   6. Comparing Incas and Aztecs aka “if you forget everything else, remember this”
      1. But first, before we get started…look at the words used in this section
         1. No really…look at the words used
         2. They start with words like “although”, or “both”
         3. It’s just beautiful how the reader can make connections
      2. In fact, my eyes are filling a little misty
         1. This is one of the best Comparative Analysis Essays I’ve ever seen in your Stearns book, and after 14 chapters of taking notes, I’m starting to
            1. feel like Stearns is like a brother, an older brother, but a brother
            2. but…I digress…let’s get back to it
      3. Similarities
         1. Represented military and imperial organization success
         2. Controlled circulation of goods
         3. Agricultural based with a food surplus
         4. Nobles became more important than local leaders
         5. Allowed for diversity as long as authority
         6. Empires acquired by conquest of sedentary peoples
         7. Belief systems, cosmology similar roots
         8. Both couldn’t survive shock of conquest
            1. Your book says they do survive the conquest, but I beg to differ, they were split up into small little regions
            2. But, I will accept that they carried on the culture
         9. However “We cannot overlook the great DIFFERENCES”
            1. Aztecs have better trade and markets
            2. First, there quite similar, variations of same system
            3. Metallurgy, writing systems, hierarchy
               1. Ummm…book…could you give us some specifics
            4. Overall…this section does a horrible job discussing differences
5. Other Indians
   1. How to differentiate – based on degree of social order/material culture/political structure
      1. Diversity based on geographical factors
      2. Not all agriculture based
   2. How many Indians?
      1. If you guessed 14,375,421, you were wrong
      2. Between 8.4 million and 112 million – Gee thanks…that’s real close
         1. Numbers changed due to
            1. Understanding of impact of disease
            2. archaeological studies
            3. improved estimates of agricultural techniques
      3. Europe about the same size as the Americas – population wise
   3. Differing Cultural Patterns
      1. Basically…it’s hard to say there is just one type of “Indian”
         1. Some hunted, some gathered, some farmed, some did a mixture
         2. Some had huge class divisions, some were more egalitarian
         3. Most lived in small kin-ship based groups
      2. North America extremely diverse
         1. Some lived in cliffs, towns or teepees
         2. Agricultural unless farming too tough, then hunter gatherers
      3. Similar to Europe/Asia
         1. Kin based societies
         2. Communal owning of property
         3. Women subordinate, but some had high positions
      4. Part of ecological system, not controlling it “You think you own whatever land you land on…earth is just a dead thing you can claim, but I know…”
   4. American Indian Diversity in World Context
      1. Paradox – wealthy/accomplished civilizations, but “primitive” to Europe
      2. But…how much is the difference based on lack of…
         1. wheel
         2. large pack animals
         3. metal tools
         4. written language
      3. They developed, just differently
   5. Global Connections
      1. Isolation prevented diffusion of ideas – it’s not bad, just the reality
      2. Lacks world religions, large domesticated animals (yes…they had guinea pigs)
      3. Not immune to diseases
      4. Lacked ironworking
   6. I’m tired, and I’m going to bed

Chapter 12
Reunification and Renaissance: The Era of the Tang and Song Dynasties

1. I. Introduction
   1. A. Vital consolidation – changes less fundamental than elsewhere
   2. B. Though isolated, created “orbit of influence”
   3. C. After Han – nomadic invasions
      1. 1. Regional kingdoms
      2. 2. Landed families with aristocratic backgrounds dominated rulers
      3. 3. Decline
         1. a. Foreign religion – Buddhism
         2. b. non-Chinese nomads ruled
         3. c. Great Wall divided between kingdoms
         4. d. trade/city life declined
         5. e. technology stagnated
         6. f. thought looked for magical cures/immortality
   4. D. Rapid return to height under Tang because of
      1. 1. Preservation of Confucian institutions
2. II. Rebuilding the Imperial Edifice in the Sui-Tang Eras
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Summary
         1. a. Sui recentralized control
         2. b. Under Tang – bureaucracy restored, improved, expanded
         3. c. Confucian revival
      2. 2, Sui Dynasty – 580 – return to strong dynastic control
         1. a. Wendi – northern elite family
         2. b. Secured power through
            1. 1. marriage
            2. 2. support of neighboring nomadi leaders
               1. a. Reconfirmed titles
               2. b. Showed no preference for scholar gentry
         3. c. Won support
            1. 1. lowering taxes
            2. 2. creation of food granaries
   2. B. Sui Excesses and Collapse
      1. 1. Son Yangdi
         1. a. murdered father
         2. b. extended father’s conquests
         3. c. drove back nomads
         4. d. established milder legal code
         5. e. restore examination system
      2. 2. Downfall
         1. a. Programs hurt aristocratic families and nomadic leaders
         2. b. Built palaces
         3. c. Build canal links
         4. d. extensive game park – imported trees
         5. e. failed in attempt to take Korea
   3. C. The Emergence of the Tang and the Restoration of the Empire
      1. 1. Li Yuan – Duke of Tang took over
         1. a. Former nomadic leaders forced to submit
         2. b. Created frontier armies
            1. 1. Sons of tribal leaders sent to capital as hostages – eventually assimilated
         3. c. Korea overrun by Chinese armies
            1. 1. Kingdom of Silla created as tributary state
   4. D. Rebuilding the Bureaucracy
      1. 1. To survive, must rebuild and expand imperial bureaucracy
         1. a. need for loyal/well-educated officials
         2. b. offset power of aristocracy
         3. c. power to ruling families + bureaucrats
         4. d. created ministries
            1. 1. secretariat – drafted decrees
            2. 2. secretariat monitored officials
            3. 3. executive ran ministries – day to day life
   5. E. Growing Importance of the Examination System
      1. 1. Numbers of bureaucrats grew far past Han
      2. 2. Ministry of Rites – several kinds of examinations
      3. 3. Honor to those who passed
         1. a. Jinshi title
         2. b. transformed into dignitaries
         3. c. special social status
            1. 1. certain clothing
            2. 2. exempt from corporal punishment
            3. 3. access to material comfort/pleasures
            4. 4. Birth and family connections could still help you get into universities, assist
               1. a. Bureaucracy still overwhelmingly run by established familes
            5. 5. Merit and ambition important, but birth and family influence count for more
   6. F. State and Religion the Tang-Song Era
      1. 1. State support of Confucian ideas
         1. a. Threatened Buddhist monastic orders
         2. b. Threatened old aristocratic families
      2. 2. Previous nomadic rulers – mostly Buddhist
         1. a. Masses believed in Mahayana Buddhism – salvation
         2. b. Chan/Zen Buddhism for elite
            1. 1. Stress on meditation
            2. 2. appreciation of natural/artistic bueaty
            3. 3. Empress Wu – 690-705
               1. a. Tried to make Buddhism state religion
               2. b. Commissioned Buddhist painting/sculpture
               3. c. Statues of Buddha carved
               4. d. Large pagodas built
               5. e. 50,000 monasteries
            4. 4. Reached Height in beginning of Tang empire
   7. G. The Anti-Buddhist Backlash
      1. 1. Daoists competed by stressing heir own magical/predictive powers
      2. 2. Economic challenge of Buddhists
         1. 1. not taxed
         2. 2. denied labor pool – can’t tax/conscript peasants on monasteries
      3. 3. Emperor Wuzong
         1. 1. Thousands of shrines destroyed
         2. 2. monks/nuns forced to abandon monastic life
         3. 3. Lands divided among taxpaying landlords/peasants
      4. 4. But…Buddhism already left mark in law, arts, language, heaven, charity
3. IIII. Tang Decline and the Rise of the Song
   1. A. Fall of Tang
      1. 1. Empress Wei attempts to take throne for son by poison
      2. 2. Another prince Xuanzong takes over
         1. a. Initially wanted political/economic reforms
         2. b. Eventually devoted self to arts, pleasures music
         3. c. Relation with Yang Guifei – woman from harem of another prince
            1. 1. Famous, ill-fated romance
            2. 2. Focus on Yang Guifei
               1. a. Power to her family – angered others
               2. b. neglected economy
               3. c. military weakness
      3. 3. Military leaders push for revolt
         1. a. Revolt put down, but emperor has to kill Yang Guifei
         2. b. Had to make alliances with nomadic leaders/regional kings
         3. c. Regional lords develop independent armies
            1. 1. Leads to period of revolts
   2. B. The Founding of the Song Dynasty
      1. 1. Just when it seemed like provincial leaders and nomads would again rule…
      2. 2. Zhao Kuangyin – fearless warrior
         1. a. Can’t overcome Liao dynasty
         2. b. Precedent set - *** Song dynasty always plagued by pressure from north
            1. 1. Had to pay heavy tribute to north
            2. 2. North militarily dominant
         3. c. Song empire culturally superior
   3. C. Song Politics: Settling for Partial Restoration
      1. 1. Desire to not have same problems as under Tang
         1. a. Military subordinated to civilian bureaucrats
            1. 1. Different than Rome/West where military leaders dominate
         2. b. Civil officials only allowed to be governors
         3. c. military commanders rotated
         4. d. promoted interests of Confucian scholar-gentry
            1. 1. Officials’ salaries increased
            2. 2. Civil service exams routinized – every three years at three levels
         5. e. Led to too many officials, but…bureaucracy saved
   4. D. The Revival of Confucian Thought
      1. 1. Revival of Confucian ideas
         1. a. Recover long-abandoned texts (like Renaissance in Europe)
         2. b. decipher ancient inscriptions
      2. 2. Neo-Confucians
         1. a. Personal morality highest goal
         2. b. Virtue attained through book learning…and…
         3. c. Personal observation…and…
         4. d. Contact with wise people
         5. e. Hostile to foreign philosophies – aka Buddhism
         6. f. Focus on tradition
      3. 3. Eventually stifled thought of elite
      4. 4. Reinforced class, age, gender distinctions
         1. a. If men/women keep to place, you can achieve social harmony
   5. E. Roots of Decline: Attempts at Reform
      1. 1. Problems
         1. a. Weakness in phase of Khitan from north, encouraged other nomads
         2. b. Tribute paid to north weakening economy
         3. c. Cost of army – 1 million – too expensive
         4. d. Focus on civilian leaders, meant weak leaders often led armies
         5. e. Money not spent on fortifications, but on scholarly pursuits/entertainment
      2. 6. Wang Anshi – attempts to reform
         1. a. Legalist perspective
         2. b. Cheap loans
         3. c. Irrigation projects
         4. d. Taxed landlord/scholarly class
         5. e. Established trained mercenary force
         6. f. Tried to reorganize university education
   6. F. Reaction and Disaster: The Flight to the South
      1. 1. Song dynasty survived invasion of Jurchens by moving South
      2. 2. Southern Song dynasty not powerful,but…
         1. a. Lasted 150 years
         2. b. One of the most glorious periods of Chinese history – their Golden Age
4. IV. Tang and Song Prosperity: The Basis of a Golden Age
   1. A. Grand Canal
      1. 1. Movement of people and goods
      2. 2. Population switch made it necessary to improve communications north-south
         1. a. South producing more food – has larger population
      3. 3. Million forced laborers
   2. B. A New Phase of Commercial Expansion – how does the economy get better
      1. 1. Silk Road expanded and protected
         1. a. Horses, Persian rugs, tapestries imported
         2. b. silk textiles, porcelain, paper exported
      2. 2. Junks – as strong quality wise as dhows of the Arabs
         1. a. watertight bulkheads
         2. b. sternpost rudders
         3. c. oars, sails, compasses, bamboo fenders
         4. d. gunpowder rockets
      3. 3. Governments supervised hours/marketing methods at trade centers
      4. 4. Merchants banded together in guilds
      5. 5. Expanded credit
      6. 6. Deposit shops found throughout empire
      7. 7. paper money – credit vouchers – flying money
         1. a. Reduced danger of robbery
   3. C. World’s Most Splendid Cities
      1. 1. Surge in Urban Growth
      2. 2. Imperial City – Changan
         1. a. Palace/audience halls restricted
         2. b. Elaborate gardens, hunting park
      3. 3. Hangzhou – “most noble city” “best in the world” – Marco Polo
         1. a. Great marketplaces
         2. b. entertainment
            1. 1. boating
            2. 2. singing girls
            3. 3. bath houses
            4. 4. restaurants
            5. 5. acrobats
            6. 6. tea houses,
            7. 7. opera performances
   4. D. Expanding Agrarian Production and Life in the Country
      1. 1. Agricultural improvements
         1. a. Encouraged peasant migrations
         2. b. supported military garrisons in rural areas
         3. c. state-regulated irrigation/canals
         4. d. new seeds – Champa rice from Vietnam
         5. e. great poo – human, animal, fertilizer manure
         6. f. inventions – wheelbarrow
         7. g. break up land of aristocracy
            1. 1. Takes power from aristocrats
            2. 2. Promoted position of ordinary citizen
      2. 2. Architecture
         1. a. Curved roofs meant status
         2. b. Yellow/green tiles
   5. E. Family and Society in the Tang-Song Era
      1. 1. Women
         1. a. Showed signs of improving, but then deteriorated
            1. 1. Marriages among same age women/men
            2. 2. Importance of marriage alliances helped with dowrys
            3. 3. Upper classes – women could yield considerable power initially
               1. a. Range of activities – even polo
               2. b. Divorce by mutual consent
               3. c. More defense against husband’s negative behavior than in India
               4. d. Wealthy women even took lovers in Hangzhou
   6. F. Neo-Confucian Assertion of Male Dominance
      1. 1. Women, but with the Neo-Confucianists, women put back in their place
         1. a. Primary role – bearer of sons – patrilineal line
         2. b. Advocated confining women – fidelity, chastity, virginity
         3. c. Excluded from education for civil service
         4. d. Footbinding – equal to veil/seclusion in Islam
            1. 1. Preference for small feet – feminine
            2. 2. Limited mobility – crippling
            3. 3. Can’t be initially accepted by the poor – still need the labor
            4. 4. Eventually, because marriage goal, mothers had to bind daughter’s feet
      2. 2. Men permitted to have premarital sex, concubines, remarry after death
         1. a. Laws favored men for inheritance
   7. G. Glorious Age: Invention and Artistic Creativity
      1. 1. Inventions
         1. a. New agricultural tools
         2. b. Banks and paper money
         3. c. Engineering feats – Grand Canal, dikes, dams
            1. 1. Bridges – arches, segmented, suspension, trussed – forms used today
         4. d. Explosive powder
            1. 1. Grenades, flamethrowers, poisonous gases, rocket launchers
            2. 2. Checked nomadic invasions
         5. e. Domestically
            1. 1. dinking tea, chairs, coal for fule, kite
         6. f. Key inventions for future civilizations
            1. 1. abacus, compass, printing – movable type
   8. H. Scholarly Refinement and Artistic Accomplishment
      1. 1. Painted landscapes
      2. 2. Artists generalists, not specialists – you would be the poet, musician, and painter
      3. 3. Confucian influence vs. Buddhist
         1. 1. Landscapes, everyday life replace devotional objects
      4. 4. Paintings
         1. 1. Symbolic – philosophical or taught lessons
            1. a. Crane – pine tree – longevity
            2. b. Bamboo – scholarly class
         2. 2. Abstract – subtlety and suggestion
   9. I. Global Connections
      1. 1. By moving south, Song could withstand nomadic invaders
      2. 2. More market oriented
         1. 1. Technological improvements taken from surrounding areas
         2. 2. Production of luxury goods desired by wealthy class around the world
         3. 3. Chinese inventions utilized by rest of the world
         4. 4. Until 18th century – political and economic resources unmatched by other civilizations

Chapter 13
The Spread of Chinese Civilization: Japan, Korea, and Vietnam

1. Introduction
   1. Neighbors of China borrow from Chinese achievements
      1. Influenced North/West nomadic neighbors
      2. Also influenced agrarian Japan, Korea, Vietnam
      3. Buddhism played key role in transmission
         1. Indian ideas filtered through Chinese society/culture
2. Japan: The Imperial Age
   1. Introduction
      1. Overview
         1. 7th and 8th century attempt to borrow from China
            1. army, bureaucracy, etiquette, art
         2. But…emperor’s sheltered
            1. 1. provincial leaders/warlords took over
         3. c. Plunged into civil wars from 12th to 17th century
      2. 2. Taika Reforms – copying Chinese administration
         1. a. Chinese characters/language adoption
         2. b. wrote history in dynastic terms
         3. c. court etiquette
         4. d. struggled to master Confucian ways
         5. e. worshipped Chinese style temples
         6. f. admired Buddhist art
         7. g. Buddhism blended with kami – Shinto
   2. B. Crisis at Nara and the Shift to Heian (Kytoto)
      1. 1. Army/bureaucratic ideas stopped by aristocratic families/Buddhist monks
      2. 2. Emperor can’t control Buddhist monks – influenced government
         1. a. Moves to Heian – monks just make monasteries in nearby hills
         2. b. Power given to aristocratic families
         3. c. Rank determined by birth, not merit
         4. d. Local leaders organized local militias
   3. C. Ultracivilized: Court Life in the Heian Era
      1. 1. Hyper structured rules of court
         1. a. Polite behavior always
         2. b. Every action known by everyone – put up a façade always
         3. c. Complex gardens/palaces
      2. 2. Literature
         1. a. Writing verse prioritized
         2. b. First novel – prose – Lady Murasaki’s The Tale of Genji
            1. 1. criticizes those who pursue aesthetic enjoyment
            2. 2. Shows how poised/cultured nobility must act
            3. 3. Females played unusually creative roll – avoided full Chinese influence
   4. D. The Decline of Imperial Power
      1. 1. 9th century – Fujiwara clan influences emperor greatly
         1. a. Stacked courts
         2. b. Married into family
         3. c. Built up large estates
      2. 2. Monks equally build up power and domains
   5. E. The Rise of the Provincial Warrior Elites
      1. 1. Large landed estates come from
         1. a. aristocratic families
         2. b. Built up power – landowners, estate managers, local officials
      2. 2. Mini-kingdoms – like fiefdoms/manors in Europe
         1. a. small fortresses
         2. b. constant threat from neighboring lords
         3. c. self-sufficient – granaries, blacksmith, wells
      3. 3. Warrior leaders – bushi
         1. a. administered law, public works, collected revenue
         2. b. maintainied armies
      4. 4. Samurai armies – loyal to lords
         1. a. called in to protect emperor
         2. b. age of danger/bandits – samurai as bodyguards
         3. c. warrior class
         4. d. constantly trained in hunting, riding, archery
         5. e. used longbow and steel swords
         6. f. warrior code – bushido
            1. 1. courage
            2. 2. seppuku – hari-kari if you dishonor family
            3. 3. prearranged battle locations, proclaimed ancestry, few fatalities
            4. 5. Peasants become serfs – bound to land
               1. a. can’t carry swords, dress like samurai
               2. b. turned to Buddhism
3. III. Era of Warrior Dominance
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. 12th century on > civil wars
      2. 2. Chinese influence declines
      3. 3. Warrior elite produces impressive Japanese art – ceramics/landscape, poetry
   2. B. Declining influence of China
      1. 1. Emperor – heavenly mandate and centralized power a joke – regional power clear
      2. 2. Refuse to grovel, pay tribute to Chinese Son of Heaven
      3. 3. Gempei Wars – peasants vs. samurai
      4. 4. Minamoto established bakufu – military government
         1. a. Power with Minamoto family and samurai retainers
   3. C. The Breakdown of Bakufu Dominance and the Age of the Warlords
      1. 1. Warlords – shoguns – military leaders
         1. a. built up power – enlarged domains
         2. b. Hojo family – manipulated shoguns who ruled for emperors
      2. 2. Ashikaga Shogunate took power 1336-1573
         1. a. Emperor flees to hills
         2. b. Warlord lands passed out to samurai – used to be just military, now leaders
            1. 1. 300 little kingdoms – daimyos – no longer bushis
   4. D. Toward Barbarism? Military Division and Social Change
      1. 1. Chivalrous qualities of Bushi era deteriorate
         1. a. spying, sneak attacks, betrayals
         2. b. poorly trained peasant forces
         3. c. looked like they were reverting to barbarism
      2. 2. Some Daimyos tried to maintain order
         1. a. tax collection
         2. b. public works
         3. c. encourage settlement of unoccupied areas
         4. d. new tools
         5. e. new crops – soybeans, hemp, paper, dyes, vegetable oil
         6. f. new commercial class emerged
            1. 1. guild organizations started – solidarity/group protection
      3. 3. Women
         1. a. merchant women a bit of independence
         2. b. noble women used to be able to ride/use bow and arrow
            1. 1. Now primogeniture – oldest son gets everything wins out
            2. 2. given in marriage for alliances
            3. 3. taught to slay selves rather than dishonor – if raped
            4. 4. Japanese theatrical female roles played by men
   5. E. Artistic Solace for a Troubled Age
      1. 1. Focus – simplicity/discipline
      2. 2. Revival of Chinese influence
      3. 3. Monochrome ink sketches
      4. 4. Architecture built to blend with natural setting/meditation
         1. a. Famous gardens
            1. 1. Volcanic rocks
            2. 2. Raked pebbles
            3. 3. Bansai trees
            4. 4. Tea ceremony
4. IV. Korea: Between China and Japan
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Most profoundly influenced, for longest
         1. a. Extension of mainland
         2. b. Dwarfed by neighbor
         3. c. Ruled by indigenous dynasties
      2. 2. Peoples before – hunting and herding peoples
         1. a. Colonized by Chinese settlers
         2. b. Koguryo tribe resisted Chinese rule – Sinification…but…
            1. 1. variants of Buddhism
            2. 2. Chinese writing – tough to be adapted
            3. 3. unified law code
            4. 4. established universities
            5. 5. tried to implement Chinese-style bureaucracy
               1. 1. Noble families don’t allow
      3. 3. Divided into three parts during Three Kingdoms
         1. a. Koguryo
         2. b. Paekche
         3. c. Silla
   2. B. Tang Alliances and the Conquest of Korea
      1. 1. Three kingdoms weakened – Koguryo warriors hurt Tang
      2. 2. China striking alliance – Silla in southeast – became tribute
         1. a. tribute payments
         2. b. submission as vassal
         3. c. Chinese withdraw armies in 668
   3. C. Sinification: The Tributary Link
      1. 1. Tribute system
         1. a. Send embassies
         2. b. Must kowtow – ritual bows – prostrate self
      2. 2. Benefits of tribute system
         1. a. Continued peace
         2. b. Access to Chinese learning, art, manufactured goods
         3. c. Merchants went with emissaries
         4. d. Scholars study at Chinese academies
      3. 3. *** Became major channel of trade/cultural exchange
   4. D. The Sinification of Korean Elite Culture
      1. 1. Aristocrats
         1. a. studied in Chinese schools – some took tests
            1. 1. but family connections still more important than test scores
         2. b. artistic pursuits/entertainment
         3. c. favor Buddhism over Confucianism
      2. 2. Art
         1. a. Artwork/monastic designs reproduced Chinese Buddhist work
         2. b. Outdid teachers for pottery
            1. 1. porcelain/ black stoneware
   5. E. Civilization for the Few
      1. 1. Elite attracted to luxury goods
         1. a. fancy clothes
         2. b. special teas
         3. c. scrolls
         4. d. artwork
      2. 2. Korea exported raw materials
         1. a. forest products and copper
      3. 3. Beneath elite class
         1. a. purpose servicing elites
         2. b. government workers
         3. c. commoners
         4. d. near-slaves – “low born” – like mean people
   6. F. Koryo Collapse, Dynastic Renewal
      1. 1. After common people tired of being repressed
      2. 2. Yi dynasty established 1392 – ruled until 1910
         1. a. Restored aristocratic dominance
5. V. Between China and Southeast Asia: The Making of Vietnam
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Vietnam – rice-growing area
      2. 2. Viets not as accepting of Chinese influence
         1. a. farther away
         2. b. resilient culture
         3. c. seen as distinct people – fear of losing identity
      3. 3. Already received benefits from China
         1. a. technology
         2. b. market for their ivory, tortoise shells, pearls, peacock feathers, aromatic woods, exotic products from sea/forest
         3. b. political organization
         4. c. ideas
      4. 4. Seen as “southern barbarians”
      5. 5. Different from China
         1. a. Different language
         2. b. Village autonomy
         3. c. favored nuclear family over extended family
         4. d. never developed clan networks
         5. e. women have greater freedom/influence
         6. f. women wear long skirts/not long pants
         7. g. delighted in cockfighting
         8. h. chewed betel nut
         9. i. blackened teeth
   2. B. Conquest and Sinification
      1. 1. 111 BCE Han dynasty conquers Vietnam – elite realized they could benefit
         1. a. attended Chinese schools
         2. b. took exams for administration
         3. c. cropping techniques and irrigation
         4. d. military organization gave them an edge over neighbors
         5. e. extended family model to extended family – venerated ancestors
      2. 2. Roots of Resistance
         1. a. Elites like, but peasants annoyed
         2. b. Chinese didn’t like local customs – disgusted/looked down
         3. c. Peasants rallied when lords wanted to fight
            1. 1. Trung sisters led 39 CE revolt
               1. a. Women had a lot to lose with Confucian ideas
      3. 3. Winning Independence and Continuing Chinese Influence
         1. a. Can’t control
            1. 1. Greater distance
            2. 2. Mountain barriers
            3. 3. Small number of Chinese actually moved to Vietnam
            4. 4. Vietnamese took advantage of political turmoil in China
            5. 5. By 939 won independence
         2. b. Future leaders borrowed from Chinese ideas
            1. 1. Chinese palaces
            2. 2. Administration
               1. a. Secratriats
               2. b. Ministries
               3. c. Civil Service Exams
               4. d. Bureau of Censors – graft/corruption
         3. c. But…scholar gentry never arises
            1. 1. local officials identify with peasantry
            2. 2. competition from well-educated Buddhist monks
   3. C. The Vietnamese Drive to the South
      1. 1. Able to defeat Khmer/Cham neighbors – superior military forces/weapons
   4. D. Expansion and Division
      1. 1. North vs. South – South seen as less energetic, slower
      2. 2. Nguyen in South, Trinh in North – civil wars
      3. 3. Unable to unite against foreign threat – eventually French
6. IV. Global Connections
   1. A. Chinese organization suited to sedentary cultivation
      1. 1. Borrowing from China led to ignoring of outside world
   2. B. Writing, bureaucracy, religious teachings, art spread to Asia
      1. 1. Korea, direct rule brief, but influence great
      2. 2. Japan – emulated China for awhile, aristocratic class took over
   3. C. Imports monopolized by wealthy elites

Chapter 14
The Last Great Nomadic Challenges: From Chinggis Khan to Timur

1. Introduction
   1. Mongols ended/interrupted many great postclassical empires
   2. Extended world network – foundation for interaction on global scale
   3. Forged mightiest war machine
   4. Four khanates – sons divided
      1. Ruled for 150 years
      2. Last time nomadic peoples dominated sedentary peoples
   5. Paradox of rule – fierce fighters vs. tolerant/peaceful leaders
2. The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan
   1. Introduction
      1. difficult to organize before Chinggis Khan
         1. divisions/rivalries
         2. Khan – astute political strategist/brilliant military commander
      2. Nomadic world – horse culture
         1. Lived on herds – meat, milk, traded hides for grain/vegetables
         2. Tough little ponies
         3. Children ride from early age
         4. Could even sleep/eat on horse
            1. Animal power/seasonal migrations
            2. Movable shelters
         5. Political organization
            1. Like Bedouins – kin/clan based – combined in confederations when needed
            2. Men dominated but women could influence tribal meetings/home
            3. Leadership qualities – courage, alliance forging ability
   2. The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan
      1. Born Temujin to tribal leader, but father poisoned
      2. Imprisoned by rival clan, but escapes
         1. Makes alliance with another clan
      3. Reputation as warrior/military commander attracted other clan chiefs
      4. 1206 at kuriltai meeting – named khagan – extreme ruler
   3. Building the Mongol War Machine
      1. Natural warriors
         1. trained from youth to ride/hunt
         2. tough, mobile, accustomed to death
         3. variety of weapons – lances, hatchets, maces
            1. Short bow the best – 400 yard range vs. 250 European
            2. Chinggis Khan’s leadership
         4. organization, discipline, unity
         5. directed fighting spirit toward conquest
         6. divided groups into tumens – think centurions of Rome
      2. Messenger force – tightly bandages – ride all day/night
      3. Military discipline – killed if flee
      4. Generosity fto brave foes
      5. Utilized excellent maps
      6. New weapons – flaming arrows, gunpowder, siege weapons
         1. Willing to adopt from conquered groups
   4. Conquest: The Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan
      1. Ruled over ½ million Mongols
      2. Greatest pleasure making war – campaigns
         1. fortified cities – willing to adopt weapons of other nations
            1. developed siege weapons
               1. rams, catapults, exploding balls
               2. bamboo rockets
         2. threatened terrifying retribution – surrender or else
            1. slaughtered/sold townspeople
            2. buildings turned to rubble
            3. forced to pay tribute
   5. First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China
      1. Defeated Turkik ruler to the west – Muhammad Shah II
         1. Leader sent back envoys with heads shaved
         2. Mongols destroyed with authority
            1. Fight, cavalry runs away, followed by other army, heavy cavalry moves in

         2. Battle tactic

         3. Defeated Muhammad Shah II and brought in tens of thousands of horsemen
3. Life Under the Mongol Imperium
   1. Astute and tolerant rulers
      1. Open to new ideas
      2. Wanted diverse peoples to live together in peace
   2. Interest in arts and learning of conquered people
   3. New capital at Karakorum – wise and clever visited as envoys
      1. Confucian scholars on how to rule China
      2. Muslims – engineers and trade
      3. Daoist holy men – elixir for immortality
   4. All religions tolerated
   5. Mongol script created – mostly illiterate people
   6. Effects
      1. Peace to much of Asia
         1. Towns – handicraft production, scholarship, free expression
      2. Secure trade routes
      3. Force for major economic/social development
4. The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire
   1. 180,000 warriors to conquer China
   2. But…got sick and died in 1227
      1. empire divided among 3 sons and Batu grandsono
      2. Last bit of anger – carried back Khan’s body
         1. Hunted/killed every animal/human in sight
   3. Mongol successor Ogedei – third son – named grand khan
      1. Not best warrior, but best diplomat

Chapter 15 Notes
The West and the Changing World Balance

1. Introduction
   1. 1400 – world in period of transition
      1. Downfall of Arab caliphate
      2. Spread of Mongols
      3. Who would take new international trade role? Maybe China?
   2. But…Enter the Europeans – finally, they’ve been behind everyone for 8000 years
      1. Italy, Spain, Portugal took leadership role
      2. Americas couldn’t respond to European invasions
   3. Key question – why did different civilizations react differently?
      1. This could be a key question – notice the word differences
         1. This class just loves to compare civilizations
2. The Decline of the Old Order
   1. 1200 – Middle East run by Byzantine Empire (North) – Arab Empire (South)
      1. But…Turks took over Byzantines in 1453, 1258 Mongols - Caliph
   2. Social and Cultural Change in the Middle East
      1. Religious leaders gained power over artistic leaders in Arab world
         1. New piety – think about orthodox Muslims today
         2. Religious art themes
         3. Rationalism of Greece (Hellenism) now seen as bad, a threat
            1. …don’t think this is just Arab world, Europeans getting scared of logic/rationalism as well
      2. Economic shifts
         1. As centralized power slows, provincial leaders (landlords) get more power
            1. Hmmm…what an interesting pattern I’ve never seen before
         2. But…bad things resulted
            1. Lower agricultural yield
            2. Less taxes
            3. Less trade
            4. Indian Ocean trade still strong
         3. A gradual decline, not sudden like in Rome
         4. But…even though politically weak, other political areas took more power
            1. Ottoman Turks took over control – more powerful than before
   3. A Power Vaccum in International Leadership
      1. Ottoman Turks not an international leader like Islamic caliphate
      2. Mongols provided next global leader
         1. Encouraged interregional trade
         2. Exchanged technology/ideas
         3. End of empire turned to seaborne trade, as land trade less protected
   4. Chinese Thrust and Withdrawal
      1. Ming “brilliant” dynasty took over 1368-1644
         1. pushed out Mongols first
         2. re-established tributary links with Southeast Asian states
      2. State-sponsored trade expeditions
         1. Admiraly Zhenghe – 1405-1433 led vast, unparalleled fleet
            1. Former eunuch – why do you think leaders like eunuchs for advisors?
            2. Brought fleet of 28,000 troops – scared the willies out of local leaders
         2. Eventually brought back – threatened the Confucian bureaucrats
            1. Remember – they don’t like merchants having power
            2. Other reasons – cost
               1. Money better spent building Beijing, fighting Mongols
      3. What if Chinese kept trading? Lost chance to be world power
         1. Dainty little European ships no match
         2. Followed Chinese pattern of spending money internally, practically
            1. Not like West, where power is judged by expansion
      4. Instead – worked on infrastructure – population increased, manufacturing improved
      5. Arabs on decline, Mongols dying out, China not stepping to the plate…leads to…
3. The Rise of the West
   1. Why is their rise surprising?
      1. Still awed by other bureaucracies
      2. Church under attack
      3. warrior aristocrats softened life – ridiculous tournaments/armor
      4. lives of ordinary Europeans falling apart
         1. famine
         2. vulnerable to bubonic plague
            1. China’s population hit by 30%
            2. Europe lost 30 million
               1. Led to strikes/peasant uprisings
   2. Sources of Dynamism: Medieval Vitality
      1. Why was Europe still strong?
         1. Strong regional governments created during feudalism
         2. Military innovations thanks to Hundred Years War
            1. Nonaristocratic soldiers – regular guys not paid boy gov’t
            2. Paid by central gov’t = more taxes = more central power
         3. Growth of cities – helped commerce
         4. Church content with capitalism – notice alliteration
         5. Technology improving – metalwork
   3. Imitation and International Problems
      1. Technology pushes expansion
         1. During Mongol period – Europe has ideal access
            1. Not controlled, but still involved in trade
            2. Internal conflict spurs regions to improve technology to win battles
      2. International Factors push expansion
         1. Interest in luxury goods
         2. Nobody wants European products, so they have to pay in gold
            1. Europe doesn’t have gold…so…they need to go find some
         3. Fears of a Muslim threat
            1. Need to secure Western ports
            2. Need to create sea trade since Muslims now control land trade
   4. Secular Directions in the Italian Renaissance
      1. First…I can’t believe we’re going to spend two paragraphs talking about the Renaissance when this was discussed ad nauseum in Western Civ
      2. West’s surge forward – rebirth of culture and political views of Classical Europe
         1. Artists create more human-centered works of art – humanism
         2. Artist/writers pushed for own reputation
         3. Works now secular, and religious simultaneously
         4. Italy started – wealthy merchants want to impress others – patrons
            1. Help sponsor cultural activities, scholars – competition
         5. Human Values and Renaissance Culture
            1. Focus of art changes – it’s a cultural revolution
               1. Subject – people, nature, portraits
               2. Created perspective
               3. Vivid, realistic statues – like classic Rome/Greece
            2. But…not a full break from Medieval World…usually had to involve religion too
            3. Change mindset – looking outward
               1. Building ships, pushing commerce
               2. Ambitious city-state governments funded new ventures
               3. Human ambition, pursuit of glory focused on exploration/conquest
      3. The Iberian Spirit of Religious Mission
         1. Spanish and Portugese rulers pushing military/religious agenda
            1. Goal of armies – push Christianity, kick out Arabs/Jews
            2. Government enforced Church codes
            3. Inquisition courts to enforce orthodoxy
            4. Key…government with religious mission
4. Western Expansion: The Experimental Phase
   1. Early Explorations
      1. Western route to the Indies – spice trade area?
         1. Vivaldis from Genoa sailed off to the land of nowhereville
         2. Mostly had to stick to the coast of Africa
      2. After 1430, some navigational problems solved
         1. compass/astrolabe – navigation by stars – from Arabs
         2. Improved mapmaking
         3. but…geographically inaccurate maps give false confidence
         4. 1498 – Vasco de Gama heads to Indian Ocean
   2. Colonial Patterns
      1. How to make expeditions profitable?
         1. Henry the Navigator pushed for scientific, intellectual, religious, economic
      2. Islands off Africa became test ground for colonialism
         1. large agricultural estates
            1. sugar, cotton, tobacco
         2. brought in slaves by Portugese
      3. Success of early programs led to expansion
      4. Forces influencing European expansion
         1. inferiorities and fears - Muslims
         2. energies of Renaissance merchants
         3. economic pressures
         4. population surge
5. Outside the World Network
   1. Introduction
      1. America/Polynesia not affected by world exchange – they’d be centuries behind
      2. New problems left civilizations vulnerable
   2. Political Issues in the Americas
      1. Resentment for leadership
         1. For some reason tribute regions tired of being enslaved, sacrificed
      2. Overextension – difficult to control
      3. Other cultures developing – maybe would have surpassed
      4. All irrelevant, because when Europeans arrive…
   3. Expansion, Migration, and Conquest in Polynesia
      1. Between 7th and 14th spread eastward – Hawaii – spread culture
         1. Society in caste system – military leaders/priests dominate
         2. No written language – oral history
   4. Isolated Achievements by the Maori
      1. 8th century – Maori in New Zealand
         1. Most elaborate art
         2. Military leaders/priests have great power
         3. Slaves
      2. Because developed in isolation
         1. Vulnerable to disease
         2. Inferior weapons
         3. Cultural disintegration
   5. Adding up the Changes
      1. Master plan that Europeans would dominate or series of coincidences?
         1. Political instability in Americas
         2. Developed in isolation left technologically inferior
         3. Vulnerable to diseases
         4. China decides not to continue pursuit of world trade domination
         5. Individuals try to improve Europe’s trade deficit – Henry the Navigator
         6. Muslim impact on Africa less control
         7. Africans don’t benefit from trade with Mongols
6. Global Connections
   1. Global contacts
      1. Muslim traders/missionaries still active
      2. Mongols readily shared ideas from one end of empire to the other
      3. China made new contacts
      4. But by 1450…who would dominate next was in flux
   2. Key continuity
      1. Regions required trade to survive
         1. Africa relied on Middle East
         2. Southeast Asia linked to Muslim traders/China
         3. Western Europe contacts increasing
         4. China, India, Middle East see Africa/Europe as consumer source
   3. And that’s it…not that painful of a chapter, agree?

Chapter 16.
The World Economy

1. I. Introduction
   1. A. What are consequences of…
      1. 1. Voyages of Columbus
      2. 2. Exploration of Europeans
      3. 3. Empires built by European conquerors/missionaries
   2. B. Consequences
      1. 1. Power shift
      2. 2. Redefinition of interchange
   3. D. Patterns of diffusion
      1. 1. Classical – developing regional economies/cultures – Medit./China
         1. a. External conflicts existed, but not that important
      2. 2. Postclassical Era – contacts increase
         1. a. Missionary religions spread
         2. b. Interregional trade key component of economies – bet. continents
         3. c. Some regions dominated trade – Muslims then Mongols
      3. 3. 1450-1750 – Eve of the Early Modern Period
         1. a. New areas of world brought into global community – Americas
         2. b. Rate of global trade increased – Southeast Asia
         3. c. Relationships between groups changed power structure
         4. d. Effects on Europe – dominated trade
            1. 1. Changes within Europe
            2. 2. Parts of world become dependent on Europe
            3. 3. Used New World goods to pay for Old World luxury items
               1. a. Americas > Silver > China
   4. E. Foods
      1. 1. 30% of world’s food comes from Americas – potato, corn
         1. a. Corn embraced by Africa – later by Europe
            1. 1. Thought spread plague – also not in Bible – is it kosher?
2. II. The West’s First Outreach: Maritime Power
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Western nations unprecedented mastery of oceans
         1. a. Spain, Portugal > Britain, Holland, France
      2. 2. Who pushes trade? Princes, clergy, merchants
         1. a. Muslims – superior economy, goods
            1. 1. European nobility used to luxury goods
         2. b. Mongols – sped up exchanges
         3. c. Fall of Khans – China a mystery again
      3. 3. What were Europe’s disadvantages?
         1. a. Ignorant of world – earth flat? Indigenous warriors
         2. b. Fear of Ottoman Empire
         3. c. Lack of gold to fund
         4. d. Limited distance of small, oar-propelled ships
   2. B. New Technology
      1. 1. What were the key technological innovations that helped with trade?
         1. a. deep ships able to carry a lot of armaments/weapons
         2. b. compass
         3. c. mapmaking
         4. d. explosives adapted to gunnery
            1. 1. Metallurgy adapted Chinese invention
         5. e. Europe has unprecedented advantage on sea
   3. C. Portugal and Spain Lead the Pack
      1. 1. Why Portugal?
         1. a. Western geographic location
         2. b. Rulers
            1. 1. Excitement of discovery
               1. a. Could harm Muslim world
               2. b. Could get really rich
               3. c. Henry the Navigator – 1434 – African Coast
               4. d. 1488 – Around Cape of Good Hope
               5. e. 1498 – Vasco de Gama
                  1. 1. Threatened by Spain – Columbus 1492
                  2. 2. Four ships + Hindi pilot from Africa > India
                  3. 3. Brought iron pots, gold for spices
                  4. 4. Ships threatened, killed Indian merchants
               6. f. Portuguese then hit Brazil, Africa, India, China, Japan
            2. 2. Why Spain?
               1. a. Recently freed from Muslim rule
               2. b. Missionary zeal
               3. c. Desire for riches
               4. d. 1492 – Columbus – India/Indies – earth round
                  1. 1. Mistaken Americas > “Indians”
                  2. 2. Amerigo Vespucci – realized New World
               5. e. 1521 Magellan rounds Southern tip – heads to Indonesia
               6. f. 16th century – Spanish sent military force to back up American claims
   4. D. Northern European Expeditions
      1. 1. End of 16th century – Holland, France, England join game – why?
         1. a. Strong, wealthy monarchies
         2. b. Zealous Protestants want to rival Catholics
         3. c. Spain/Portugal become complacent
         4. d. N. Europe lighter, faster ships – 1588 Spanish Armada defeated – shift in power
         5. e. Spain/Portugal already controlled S. America
            1. 1. N. European focused on N. America
            2. 2. Interest in Americas
               1. a. Market for English woolens
               2. b. Fish
               3. c. French trappers
               4. d. Nortwest passage – Hudson
            3. 3. Dutch freed from Spain – Holland begins exploring
               1. a. Pushed Portuguese from Indonesia
               2. b. S. Africa as relay station
            4. 4. Creation of trading companies
               1. a. Dutch East India Company/British East India Company
               2. b. Government monopolies of all commerce
               3. c. Not supervised
               4. d. Raise armies/coin money
               5. e. Essentially more powerful than independent governments
                  1. 1. Dutch ruled Taiwan
                  2. 2. British ruled India
            5. 5. What were negatives of travel?
               1. a. Tiring, uncertain future
3. III. Toward a World Economy
   1. A. The “Columbian Exchange” of Disease and Food
      1. 1. Spread disease
         1. a. Native Americans – no natural immunities to smallpox/measles
            1. 1. 50-80% casualties over 150 years
            2. 2. Wiped out earlier civilizations
            3. 3. Made possible for heavy European colonization
      2. 2. Crops
         1. a. Corn/sweet potatoes to China
            1. 1. + new agricultural technology > population increases
            2. 2. 17th century has population pressure
            3. 3. 18th century – Europe major population change
      3. 3. Animal husbandry
         1. a. Horses and cattle to New World – yeayyy…beasts of burden
   2. B. The West’s Commercial Outreach
      1. 1. What was European effect on existing traders?
         1. a. Did not totally displace
            1. 1. Muslims controlled
            2. E. Africa
         2. b. Replaced some interregional traders
            1. 1. India > S. East Asia – think Malacca
         3. c. European controlled ports
            1. 1. Contacts with overland traders
            2. 2. Access to inland goods
      2. 2. Indirect control set up – Western traders get special rights
         1. a. Western merchants allowed freedom in foreign cities
            1. 1. Nagasaki, St. Petersburg, Constantinople
            2. 2. Supplemented regional economies
   3. C. Imbalances in World Trade
      1. 1. Most active competition between Europe – see any global context – wars to come?
      2. 2. Spain failed – bad banking system
      3. 3. England, France, Holland – merchants already strong – core nations
         1. a. What was the effect on these countries?
            1. 1. Pushed manufacturing, new markets for goods
            2. 2. Created mercantilism – nation-state must only trade with core nation
               1. a. Stiff tariff (aka import tax) policies discouraged colonial mfg
      4. 4. Outside Europe, some regions became dependent, subservient
         1. a. What goods did these regions offer?
            1. 1. Low cost goods – metals, cash crops – sugar, spice, tobacco, cotton
            2. 2. Human labor – sub-Saharan Africa supplies slaves
            3. 3. Exchanged for mfg. goods > guns, alcohol
   4. D. A System of International Inequality
      1. 1. Global context – dependent nations then are the dependent nations today
         1. a. Don’t exaggerate core-dependent system
            1. 1. Some regional princes/local leaders got rich also
            2. 2. Some not involved – local peasants aren’t touched by global econ.
         2. b. But…what were the negatives?
            1. 1. Significant minorities fueling system
            2. 2. Latin/African merchants don’t control rules of trade
            3. 3. Wealth doesn’t stimulate local economies – mfg. not encouraged **
               1. a. Forced to rely on imports, don’t become self-sufficient
            4. 4. Coercive labor systems spread
               1. a. System only survives with cheap labor
               2. b. Importation of African slaves to Americas
               3. c. Encomienda system – estate agriculture – forces peasants
   5. E. How Much World in the World Economy?
      1. 1. Those not in global economy don’t grow as fast – why?
         1. a. Don’t have huge profits of European core nations
         2. b. Technologies don’t change as rapidly
      2. 2. China – benefited, but participated on small scale
         1. a. Refused to embrace all of Europe’s new technologies – firearms
         2. b. Limited trade through Macao – which country controlled Macao?
         3. c. So…bad, didn’t develop as fast, but good…didn’t become subservient
         4. d. Chinese mfg. of luxury goods enough to keep pace
            1. 1. What…China manufactures goods? Really? I’ve never seen anything that says Made in China
            2. 2. Europeans loved Chinese goods – porcelain plates > China
            3. 3. Japan – initially open to Western missionaries, gunnery, shipping
               1. a. Feudal wars interested in guns
               2. b. But…guns kept out
                  1. 1. Threat on samurai military dominance
                  2. 2. Warring lords – balance of power would be destroyed
                  3. 3. Made guns locally then…
               3. c. Totally cut off trade, isolated for 17th to 19th century – Meiji Restoration
               4. d. Only Nagasaki – Dutch port – kind of like Macao
            4. 4. India – Mughal Empire – 16th century
               1. a. Encouraged small port colonies from Europeans
               2. b. But…India focused mostly internally
            5. 5. Ottoman/Safaid Empires
               1. a. Focused internally
               2. b. Few European enclaves in key cities
            6. 6. Russia
               1. a. Remains agricultural
               2. b. Trades with nomadic peoples
            7. 7. Africa
               1. a. Aside from sub-Sarahan slave regions, mostly ignored
   6. F. The Expansionist Trend
      1. 1. First phase of dependent countries – S. America, W. Indies, N. America, W. Africa
      2. 2. Second phase – Southeast Asia
      3. 3. Third phase – India, Mughal Empire
         1. a. British/French East India Companies controlled more of economy/admin
         2. b. British passed high tariffs, stop import of cotton
            1. 1. Goal – India market for British goods
            2. 2. Source of gold income
         3. c. India’s position gradually worsened, mfg. started to stall
      4. 4. Third phase – Eastern Europe
         1. a. Growing western cities needed Eastern grain
         2. b. Serfs on large Polish, Prussian, Russian estates
            1. 1. Like encomienda system, but European gov’ts stronger than Americ
4. IV. Colonial Expansion
   1. A. The Americas: Loosely Controlled Colonies
      1. 1. Why was colonization of Americas possible?
         1. a. Superior horses, guns, iron weapons
         2. b. Population losses of Indians
         3. c. Political disorder
      2. 2. What type of men led expeditions?
         1. a. Adventurous, violent, treacherous, unscrupulous, money hungry
         2. b. Vasco de Balboa – first colony on mainland – Panama
         3. c. Francisco Pizarro – defeated Incas
      3. 3. What were the characteristics of colonies?
         1. a. gold-hungry
         2. b. loosely controlled by colonial govts back in Europe
         3. c. Initially, natives allowed to exist, if they paid tribute
         4. d. Administration/rule became more formalized
            1. i. Expanse of agriculture
               ii.Missionary efforts
   2. B. British and French North America: Backwater Colonies
      1. 1. Types of early British colonies
         1. a. Religious Calvinist refugees – New England
         2. b. Huge land grants to people of influence – William Penn
      2. 2. French colonies in Canada
         1. a. Originally to be manors
         2. b. New France – Quebec
            1. 1. Strong role of Catholic church
         3. c. British take control of Canada in 17
         4. 6.4 after Seven Years War
            1. 1. French and Indian War if you’re studying US History
      3. 3. N. America not as valuable as W. Indies, Asian colonies, L. America
         1. a. Important – this allowed US manufacturing to develop on own
            1. 1. US South looked like L. America – big estates + slaves
               1. a. Wealthy planter class wants European luxury goods
               2. b. Foundation of self-governing – “civil society”
                  1. 1. Ran own assemblies
                  2. 2. Church as center of organization
                  3. 3. Consumers of Enlightened thinkers – Joh Locke
               3. c. Little new art, part of Europe
               4. d. Economy developed under salutary neglect
                  1. 1. Merchant class started, had something to lose
                  2. 2. Annoyed at tax hikes meant to pay for Seven Years War
               5. e. Ease of displacing Indians
                  1. 1. Few, no large empires
                  2. 2. Not agriculture based, easy to displace
                  3. 3. Disease
                  4. 4. Did not combine with natives like in L. America
               6. f. Slaves – by 18th century – 23% of English colonies slave
   3. C. North America and Western Civilization
      1. 1. To what extent was European culture reproduced in America?
         1. a. Family patterns similar, but…
            1. 1. Married younger, larger families < more land (cause)
            2. 2. Focus on nuclear family
            3. 3. Child-centeredness of American families – need labor to survive
   4. D. Africa and Asia: Coastal Trading Stations
      1. 1. Not colonizing Africa, content to have fortresses on coast
         1. a. Why not colonize? Climate, disease, nonnavigable rivers
      2. 2. European impact locations
         1. a. Angola – Portugese go inland for slaves, disrupts society
         2. b. Cape Colony – S. Africa – Dutch stop
            1. a. Boer (farmers) spread out
            2. b. After 1770, battle became for who would control – Boer/Indigenous
            3. c. Philippines – Spain – missionary zeal
            4. d. Indoneseia, Taiwan – Dutch
      3. 3. Fall of India
         1. a. Mughal Empire weakening 17th century
         2. b. British/French forts all over coasts
         3. c. Centralized gov’t fails, move to regional leaders
         4. d. Why does Britain beat France for control of India?
            1. 1. Station at Calcutta – base for income gathering
            2. 2. British gov’t listens closely to British East India Trading Co.
            3. 3. Superior navy – communication
            4. 4. Less focused on missionary work – tolerant of Hindi customs
         5. e. Seven Years War – 1756 – catalyst 120 deaths of English prisoners
            1. 1. Allied selves with regional leaders, same as in Americas
         6. f. British controlled, but Mughal Empire still existed
      4. 4. Pattern – Colonial administrations push for economic advantage
         1. a. Open country to markets
         2. b. Restrict from buying own goods
         3. c. Commercial production of cheap foods/raw materials
   5. E. Impact on Western Europe
      1. 1. Economically – pushed further industrial revolution
         1. a. World trade, African slave trade
         2. b. Brought in wealth, capital to be reinvested
         3. c. Reduced dependence on agriculture
         4. d. Additional tax revenues for governments
         5. e. Militaries grew with larger tax revenues
      2. 2. Political – colonial rivalries create national conflict in Europe
         1. a. Seven Years’ War – British/France in Europe, India, N. America
            1. 1. First world war
      3. 3. Food
         1. a. Sugar now consumed by lower classes as well
            1. 1. Set precedent for Europeans – quick satisfaction, easy pleasure
   6. F. Impact of a New World Order
      1. 1. Unfree labor systems
         1. a. Slavery, serfdom affected
         2. E. Europe, L. America, W. Africa
      2. 2. New foods, societies could now survive, prosper
      3. 3. Individual merchants, landowners status improved
      4. 4. China prospered from silver income, lost from population rise
5. V. Global Connections
   1. A. Europe’s economy, military, government changed
   2. B. Reactions to Europe’s rise
      1. 1. Sit back and watch passively in awe
      2. 2. Consciously isolate self
      3. 3. Retained vibrant internal colonies
      4. 4. Blended European ideas with local customs
         1. a. Religion in S. America
         2. b. Distinct art forms

Chapter 17
The Transformation of the West

1. I. Introduction
   1. A. 1450-1750 dramatic changes
      1. 1. Still agricultural
      2. 2. Commercially active
      3. 3. Manufacturing base
      4. 4. Science at center of society
      5. 5. Shifting ideas of family/nature
      6. 6. Increased bureaucratization – sound familiar?
   2. B. Reasons for change
      1. 1. Dominance of international trade
      2. 2. Overseas expansion
      3. 3. Combination of commerce, state, culture, and technology
      4. 4. 1450-1650 – series of cultural shifts
      5. 5. 1650-1750 – Scientific Revolution > Enlightenment
2. II. The First Big Changes: Culture and Commerce
   1. A. The Italian Renaissance
      1. 1. Artistic movement
      2. 2. Challenged medieval values/styles
         1. a. Examine old truths
      3. 3. Why in Italy?
         1. a. Urban, commercial economy
         2. b. Competitive city-states – an arts race?
      4. 4. New themes
         1. a. Writing in Latin
         2. b. Secular subjects – love/pride
         3. c. Classical/human-centered themes
         4. d. Religion declined as focus
         5. e. Humanism – humankind as focus of intellectual/artistic
      5. 5. Political Theory – Niccolo Machiavelli
         1. a. End justifies means – better to be feared then loved
      6. 6. Other effects
         1. a. Improved banking techniques
         2. b. Merchants became more profit-seeking
         3. c. Political rule based on ability to improve well-being/city’s glory
         4. d. Professional armies/improved tech. – conflict among city-states
         5. e. Diplomacy – exchange of ambassadors
   2. B. The Renaissance Moves Northward
      1. 1. Fall of Italian power
         1. a. French/Spanish invasions
         2. b. Atlantic trade routes reduced Mediterranean importance
         3. 2. Spread to North – France, Germany, England
      2. a. Classical art/architecture
      3. b. Greek/Latin literature
      4. c. Humanists wrote in vernacular – own language
      5. d. Writers more popular culture – low-brow – Shakespeare
         1. 1. bodily functions
         2. 2. human passions
         3. 3. Set new classics
      6. 3. Political Change > toward greater state power
         1. a. Revenue increase > greater ceremony/pomp aka blowing $
         2. b. Kings – Francis I – patrons of arts/architecture
         3. c. State-sponsored trading companies
         4. d. Military conquest
         5. e. Feudal/religious justifications not as important as state
      7. 4. Renaissance effects
         1. a. Kings still restricted by power of local lords
         2. b. Peasants not touched by Renaissance values
         3. c. Economics same
         4. d. Men more bravado – women more domestic
   3. C. Changes in Technology and Family
      1. 1. Technological Changes
         1. a. Learned from Asia
            1. 1. Pulleys/pumps for mines
            2. 2. Stronger iron
         2. b. Printing press – Johannes Gutenberg – movable type
            1. 1. Books helped expand Renaissance
            2. 2. Literacy gained ground
            3. 3. Source for new thinking
      2. 2. Family structure
         1. a. European-style family
            1. 1. Late marriage
            2. 2. Nuclear families not extended
         2. b. Goals/reasons
            1. 1. Limit birth/family size
            2. 2. Husband/wife importance
            3. 3. Linked family to property holdings – can’t marry till own property
   4. D. The Protestant and Catholic Reformations
      1. 1. Protestant Reformation
         1. a. Martin Luther – 1517 – German monk 95 Theses
            1. 1. Indulgences
            2. 2. Only faith brings salvation – not Church
            3. 3. Sacraments not important
            4. 4. Monasticism wrong
            5. 5. Translate Bible to vernacular
         2. b. Why did people buy into Luther’s views?
            1. 1. Political Leaders
               1. a. Nationalist – don’t want pope’s taxes
               2. b. gain more power over Holy Roman Emperor
               3. c. seize church lands
               4. d. State control of church
            2. 2. Ordinary People
               1. a. Justification for rebellion against lords – Luther’s response?
               2. b. Notion of work – other careers seen as positives
               3. c. Moneymaking OK
               4. d. Christian bias against moneymaking – Christ’s view of rich?
      2. 2. Anglican Church
         1. a. Henry VIII has marriage/fertility issues – takes his ball and goes home
            1. 1. Women disposed of easily for political reasons
            2. 2. Daughter Elizabeth I – Protestant
            3. 3. Jean Calvin – Geneva, Switzerland – Predestination
               1. a. Priests as moral guiders
               2. b. Local believers participate in church administration
               3. c. Education to read Bible
               4. d. These would be your Puritans/Pilgrims with the Thanksgiving hats
            4. 4. Catholic Reformation – more severe or more open?
               1. a. Special council meetings
               2. b. Revived Catholic doctrine
               3. c. Restated importance of sacraments
               4. d. Tried to get rid of superstition/magical beliefs
               5. e. Jesuits – politics, education, missionary work
   5. E. The End of Christian Unity in the West
      1. 1. Series of religious wars
         1. a. Germany – Thirty Years War – 1618 German Protestants vs. Holy Roman Emperor
            1. 1. Destroyed German power/population
            2. 2. Treaty of Westphalia 1648 – princes can choose
         2. b. English Civil War – 1640s
            1. 1. Religious problems combined with…
            2. 2. Parliament wants power
      2. 2. Effects of Religious Wars
         1. a. Limited acceptance of religious pluralism
         2. b. Religious doubts? Wait a second…there’s more than one way to see God?
         3. c. Shift in power – France, England, Netherlands up, Spain/Italy down
         4. d. Philosophical changes
            1. 1. Less connection between God and nature
            2. 2. Focus on family life – love husband/woman
         5. e. Women’s Rights
            1. 1. More emphasis on happy marriage
               1. a. Emphasis on affection
            2. 2. But…no more convents, fewer options – must get married
         6. f. Growing literacy
   6. F. The Commercial Revolution
      1. 1. New world economy – greater commercialization
         1. a. Increased trade
         2. b. New goods
      2. 2. Causes
         1. a. Increased inflation
         2. b. Import of gold and silver – prices up
         3. c. New wealth needs new products
         4. d. Borrowing cheap – companies take more risks – easier to pay back
         5. e. Great trading companies
            1. 1. New profits
            2. 2. New managerial skills
            3. 3. Colonial markets
               1. a. Agricultural specialty areas – not just self-sufficient
                  1. 1. Gradual switch to commercial farming
               2. b. Specialization in villages/cities
         6. 4. Increased purchasing power of ordinary citizens
            1. a. 1600 West 5x as much as S. European
            2. b. Furniture, wine
   7. G. Social Protest
      1. 1. Growing proletariat – people without access to property
         1. a. Population growth/inflation – had to sell property
         2. b. Became manufacturers
         3. c. Became paid laborers
         4. d. Cities – beggars/wandering poor
      2. 2. Popular protest results
         1. a. Demanded protection from poverty/loss of property
      3. 3. Effects of 17th century protests
         1. a. Social tension
         2. b. United peasants through songs, common causes
      4. 4. Witchcraft persecution – 17th century
         1. a. Europe/New England
         2. b. Method of blaming poor
         3. c. Conflict about family/role of women
3. III. Science and Politics: The Next Phase of Change
   1. A. Scientific Revolution
      1. 1. Affected intellectual life
      2. 2. Promoted change in popular outlook
   2. B. Did Copernicus Copy?
      1. 1. Copernicus – heliocentric theory – new thinking – proved Greeks
      2. 2. Copied from Muslims or Chinese, Indian, Mayan or independent?
      3. 3. Science becomes more a focus of Europe than anywhere else
   3. C. Science: The New Authority
      1. 1. Scientific research can overrule/test existing theories
      2. 2. Galileo – conflict w/ Church over laws of gravity
      3. 3. William Harvey – circulatory system around heart
      4. 4. Rene Descartes – human reason can develop laws – accept nothing
      5. 5. 1687 – Isaac Newton – Principia Mathematica – summarized theories/observations
         1. a. Laws of motion, gravity
         2. b. Rational hypothesis + generalizations based on experiments
         3. c. Laws not blind faith
      6. 6. Effects
         1. a. Lectures/manuals for layman
         2. b. Witchcraft seen as ridiculous
         3. c. People control/calculate environment
         4. d. Doctors based more on scientific diagnosis – no more nutjobs
         5. e. Lost and found section of newspaper – huh?
         6. f. Attacks on religion
            1. 1. miracles don’t make sense
            2. 2. Deism – great clockmaker in the sky
            3. 3. John Locke – faith irrelevant – jus need senses/reason
      7. 7. Why is this unique?
         1. a. China/Muslim had science for practical reasons
         2. b. Europe – more pure science, understanding world
         3. c. West as center of advancement
   4. D. Absolute and Parliamentary Monarchies
      1. 1. Feudal monarchies come to end
         1. a. Nobles lose influence after wars
         2. b. Heavy wars require more taxes/better administration
      2. 2. Absolute Monarchy
         1. a. Modeled after France
            1. 1. Parliament doesn’t meet
            2. 2. Blew up castles
            3. 3. Bureaucracy from merchants/lawyers
            4. 4. Appointed representatives to provinces
            5. 5. Professionalized army
               1. a. formal training officers – no longer nobility
               2. b. uniforms and support
               3. c. military hospitals/pensions – Hotel des Invalides
            6. 6. King Louis XIV – “I am the state”
               1. a. Patron of arts – government has cultural role
               2. b. Versailles – keep nobles busy
               3. c. Mercantilism – protect economy of nation
                  1. 1. Reduce internal tariffs
                  2. 2. Support manufacturing
                  3. 3. Limit imports from other nations – lose $
                     1. a. Heavy import taxes
                     2. b. Need colonies for natural resources/market
               4. b. Borrowed in Spain, Prussia (Germany today), Austria-Hungary (Hapsburg)
                  1. 1. Focus on military, expansion/protection
      3. 3. Parliamentary Monarchy
         1. a. Britain/Netherlands
         2. b. Central state + parliamentary
         3. c. England – civil wars – Glorious Revolution
            1. 1. Parliament sovereign over king (slowly becomes figurehead)
            2. 2. Meets regularly
      4. 4. Changing political theory
         1. a. John Locke
            1. a. Power from people
            2. b. Social contract between state/people to protect property
         2. b. Rousseau – right to protest
         3. c. Notions of limits to central authority
   5. E. The Nation State
      1. 1. Common culture/language
      2. 2. Loyalty linked by cultural/political bonds
      3. 3. Citizens believed gov’t should act for their interests
         1. a. France – bad harvest – state should do something
      4. 4. Kept Europe divided and often at war
4. IV. The West by 1750
   1. A. Political Patterns – became stagnant
      1. 1. England – parliamentary routine – fight for power
      2. 2. France – unable to tax nobles, church
      3. 3. Central Europe – greater change
         1. a. Prussia – Frederick the Great – enlightened despot
            1. 1. Greater religious freedom
            2. 2. Better agriculture – potato
            3. 3 .Commercial coordination
            4. 4. Harsh punishments cut back
      4. 4. Continued war – link between states and war
   2. B. Enlightenment Thought and Popular Culture
      1. 1. France and Western Europe
         1. a. Applying scientific thought to human society
            1. 1. Rational laws to describe social/physical behavior
               1. a. Criminologists – criminals should be rehabilitated
               2. b. Political scientists – careful constitutions to govern best
               3. c. Economics
                  1. 1. Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations
                     1. a. Competition good
                     2. b. Government avoid regulation
                     3. c. Let initiative and market forces work
                     4. d. Denis Diderot – Encyclopedie
                  2. 2. Basic principles of human affairs
                     1. a. Humans good
                     2. b. Educated to be better
                     3. c. Religions that rely on blind faith are bad – attacked Catholic church
                     4. d. Progress possible if people set free
                  3. 3. Feminist thinkers
                     1. a. Salons
                     2. b. Mary Wollstonecracft – new political rights for women
                     3. c. Journals written by women for women
                     4. d. Men to blame for women’s lowly position
                  4. 4. Changes in habits/beliefs
                     1. a. Reading clubs/salons
                     2. b. Treat kids nicer
                        1. 1. Less swaddling – think Singapore burrito of my kids
                        2. 2. Educational toys/books
                     3. c. Love between family members
                     4. d. Emotional bond in marriage – what a crazy thought
                        1. 1. Move away from arranged marriages
   3. C. Ongoing Change in Commerce and Manufacturing
      1. 1. Purchasing – more processed products
      2. 2. Entertainment – pay for live entertainment – status improves
      3. 3. New agriculture – 3 fold not as effective
         1. a. Drain swamps
         2. b. Technology – fertilizer, seed drills, stockbreeding
         3. c. Potato – improved food supply, delay due to Bible
      4. 4. Increased manufacturing – colonial trade + internal commerce
         1. a. Domestic system – done in homes, collected individually
         2. b. Replaced by factories – moving toward Industrial Revolution
         3. c. Manufacturers begin organizing labor – how best to make money
      5. 5. Capitalism – invest in funds for profit
      6. 6. Population increase
   4. D. Innovation and Instability
      1. 1. Changes in stronger gov’ts that supported economics
      2. 2. Reevaluation of family/children’s roles
         1. a. Children newly empowered, grow up to question system
      3. 3. Political roles – enlightenment – what is my place in gov’t
      4. 4. Unusual agricultural society – changes in commercial, cultural and political world
5. V. Global Connections
   1. A. 1450 Christianity makes them superior, but why do other civilizations have better cities/econom
   2. B. 1750 – believed their rational thought better than superstitions of others
      1. 1. Most civilizations backward
      2. 2. How cute – noble savage and exotic animals
   3. C. Changed views of Europe and others toward selves

Chapter 18 Notes

1. I. Introduction
   1. A. Land empire created between 1450-1750
      1. 1. Involved limited commercial exchange
      2. 2. Altered balance of power Asia/Europe
      3. 3. Expanded eastward into Asia
   2. B. Link to Eastern Europe
      1. 1. Some regional kingdoms
      2. 2. Conflict with Poland and Lithuania
         1. C. Changes of nation
            1. 1. Sense of separate identity
            2. 2. Reaction to Western influence – accept it, select from it, shun it
2. II. Russia’s Expansionist Politics Under the Tsars
   1. A. First step – Break free from Mongol control
      1. 1. Moscow princes strong as tax collectors
      2. 2. Ivan III – Ivan the Great – large army – 1462 frees chunk
         1. i. Utilized support for Orthodox Church
         2. ii. Played off nationalism
         3. iii. 1480 totally freed of Mongol control
   2. B. Need for Revival
      1. 1. Basic Russian Values
         1. i. Under Mongols
            1. 1. Some adopted dress
            2. 2. Christianity maintained
            3. 3. Arts diminish
            4. 4. Economic hit – trade down/manufacturing limited
               1. a. Purely agricultural economy
      2. 2. Centralized Rule
         1. i. With imperial mission – make an empire
         2. ii. Connection to Byzantine Empire – married niece of empero
      3. 3. “Third Rome” – Caesar – Tsar
      4. 4. Ivan IV – Ivan the Terrible
         1. i. Killed many nobles (boyars) for alleged conspiracy
            1. 1. Nobles couldn’t stand up for selves – no tradition
   3. C. Patterns of Expansion
      1. 1. Central Asia
         1. i. Why? Push back Mongols
         2. ii. Vast plains easy to conquer/stage battles
         3. iii. Cossacks – Russian pioneers – horse + farm
            1. 1. Took over then settled lands
            2. 2. Skilled horsemen – think American cowboys/Mongol
      2. 2. Usages of expansion
         1. i. Land given to nobles for allegiance
         2. ii. Further east opened new trading relationships
      3. 3. Eliminated independent Central Asia
         1. i. Nomads gone
         2. ii. Diverse peoples added to Russia – multicultural empire
            1. 1. Like Mughal Empire/Ottoman Empire
            2. 2. Large Muslim minority
   4. D. Western Contact and Romanov Policy
      1. 1. Carefully managed contacts with the west
         1. i. Early contacts with British merchants
         2. ii. Imported Italian artists/architects to work on churches/palaces – onion
         3. ii. Nobles look to west for style/art/status - precedent
      2. 2. Conflict over heir to the throne
         1. i. After Ivan IV – Time of Trouble – disputes for throne – boyars
         2. ii. Romanov Dynasty chosen by boyars
      3. 3. Romanov’s reestablish order
         1. i. Stopped Swedish/Polish attacks
         2. ii. Expanded empire
            1. 1. Met Ottoman Empire
            2. 2. Part of Ukraine
      4. 4. Alexis Romanov’s new powers
         1. i. Abolished noble assemblies – think Louis XIV
         2. ii. State control of Orthdox faith – get rid of superstitions of Mongol era
            1. 1. Exiled to Sibera – Old Believers
3. III. Russia’s First Westernization
   1. A. Introduction
      1. a. Unusually agricultural existence
         1. i. Peter the Great extended tsarist control
         2. ii. Expanded territory
         3. ii. Imitated Western forms
      2. b. Peter the Great – exceptional leader
         1. i. Traveled to west in disguise – picture 6’8” guy in disguise
         2. ii. Visited manufacturing centers – empires for alliances
            1. 1. Gained interest – brought back artisans, scientists
   2. B. Tsarist Autocracy of Peter the Great
      1. a. Autocrat
         1. i. Put down revolts with cruelty
            1. 1. Organized military
         2. ii. Devalued parliament
         3. ii. Recruited bureaucrats from outside nobility
         4. iv. Secret police to watch bureaucrats/prevent dissent
            1. 1. Chancery of Secret Police to 1990
      2. b. Foreign policy
         1. i. attacked Ottoman Empire, but didn’t win a ton of battles
         2. ii. weakened Sweden – sea port
         3. ii. shifted capital to St. Petersburg
   3. C. What Westernization Meant
      1. a. Political changes
         1. i. Small bureaucratic departments (think Ministries or Departments)
         2. ii. Military
            1. 1. Improved weaponry
            2. 2. First Russian navy
         3. ii. Got rid of nobility for advisors – got specialized people
         4. iv. Tsar-appointed local magistrates – can control provinces
         5. v. Systemized law codes/tax system (stuff China did 2000 years ago)
         6. vi. New training institutes for bureaucrats
      2. b. Economic changes
         1. i. Metallurgy and mining
         2. ii. Unlike W. Europe, didn’t urbanize, develop middle class
            1. 1. Serfs used for manufacturing – nobles rewarded
         3. ii. economics funded military
      3. c. Cultural changes
         1. i. Power to upper class women
            1. 1. stopped the pass the whip ceremony (whipped?)
            2. 2. wear Western clothing
            3. 3. Attend public events
            4. 4. Peasant relations stayed the same
         2. ii. Take power from elite
            1. 1. shave beards, wear western clothes – Mongol connection
            2. 2. altered appearance
      4. d. Borrowing from the West
         1. i. Education in math/sciences
         2. ii. Western cultural zone
            1. 1. imported ballet from France
            2. 2. Christmas trees from Germany
      5. e. To what extent was West imitated? Selective
         1. i. Didn’t change poor
         2. ii. Not wage labor, but serf (slave/coerced) labor
         3. ii. Economics for military purposes not for commercial expansion
         4. iv. Ideas to strengthen aristocracy, not create political rebellions
      6. f. Hostile Responses
         1. i. Peasants resented nobles – some didn’t speak Russian
         2. ii. Elite discouraged Western change – losing Russian identity
         3. ii. Set precedent for cycle of enthusiasm > revulsion
   4. D. Consolidation Under Catherine the Great
      1. a. Weak rule following Peter the Great
         1. i. Military leaders fought for power
         2. ii. Anti-western leaders emerged
         3. ii. Peter the Great’s daughter’s nephew – Peter III – mentally challenged
            1. 1. Wife Catherine – German princess – takes over
               1. a. Put down rebellions
               2. b. Centralized power
               3. c. Used Pugachev Rebellion as an excuse for more power
      2. b. Catherine II – fascinating women rulers
         1. i. Hated husband/son
         2. ii. Helped overthrow husband
         3. ii. Enlightened leader + realist/needed to centralize
         4. iv. Active personal life – doubt you need to know that
      3. c. Selective westernizer
         1. i. Brought some ideas of French Enlightenment
         2. ii. Brought some reformers to discuss law codes
      4. d. Image vs. Reality – centralized authority – serf life gets worse
         1. i. New powers to nobility – could increase punishment
            1. 1. Nobles then gave more power to central authority
            2. 2. Became service aristocracy – sold out?
         2. ii. Role of landlord
            1. 1. Requisition peasant labor
            2. 2. Levy taxes
            3. 3. Impose punishments
      5. e. Fading from Western influence – still selective
         1. i. Improved St. Petersburg
         2. ii. Encouraged nobles to travel
         3. ii. Closed Russia after French Revolution – hmmm…why?
            1. 1. Censored intellectuals – here’s a pattern/precedent
      6. f. Russian expansion
         1. i. Fought Ottoman Empire
         2. ii. Extended holdings all the way down to modern day Alaska, Oregon, N. California
      7. g. Russia’s interests in Europe
         1. i. Divided Poland between Austria and Prussia
            1. 1. Poland’s parliament kept crippling gov’t flexibility
         2. ii. Set precedent of involvement in W. Europe
            1. 1. Eventually, Russia would stop Napoleon
      8. h. Success by 1800 – summary – here’s what they accomplished
         1. i. Won independence
         2. ii. Centralized gov’t
4. IV. Themes in Early Modern Russian History
   1. A. Introduction
      1. a. Nobility extremely important
      2. b. Two types
         1. i. Great landowners/absentee owners living in the cities – westernized
         2. ii. Smaller owners live out in the countryside – less Westernized
   2. B. Serfdom: The Life of East Europe’s Masses
      1. a. Nobles power over serfs increases
         1. i. Free farmers before
         2. ii. Fell into debt – repay through servitude
            1. 1. worked land, but didn’t own it
         3. ii. Gov’t encouraged process – why?
            1. 1. Made nobles happy – won’t revolt
            2. 2. Method of controlling masses, when bureaucracy wasn’t effective
      2. b. Serf laws
         1. i. 1649 – hereditary status – born a serf – can’t escape
      3. c. Similarity to slavery
         1. i. Bought and sold
         2. ii. Gambled away
         3. ii. Punished by masters
         4. iv. Differences
            1. 1. nation enslaved own people, not outsiders
            2. 2. relied on community ties (see precedent for commun-ism)
      4. d. Similarity to Eastern Europe
         1. i. Nobles in Poland, Hungary benefited from system
            1. 1. Supported political control
            2. 2. Allowed them to have distinctive/Western life
      5. e. Eastern Europe subordinate to the West
         1. i. Russian grain traded for luxury items for nobility
      6. f. Life of serfs on estates
         1. i. Whole villages could be sold for manufacturing jobs
         2. ii. Poor/illiterate
            1. 1. Paid high taxes/obligations – impossible to escape
         3. ii. Catherine the Great created model villages to show off
   3. C. Trade and Economic Dependence
      1. a. Classes between serfs and landlords
         1. i. Prevented emergence of merchant class
            1. 1. Western European merchants lived in Russian cities/controlled trade
      2. b. Success of Russia’s social and economic system
         1. i. Enough money to support empire
         2. ii. Exported furs/commodities to central Asia – balanced trade
         3. ii. Significant population growth
            1. 1. Surprising considering harsh climate
      3. c. Limitations of Russia’s social and economic system
         1. i. Man labor not technological innovation
            1. 1. No motivation – extra profit just goes to lord
         2. ii. Manufacturing lagged behind w. Europe
   4. D. Social Unrest
      1. a. System leads to protests
         1. i. Western-oriented aristocrats push for change – end of 18th century
         2. ii. Peasants – loyal to tsar, but resented lords
      2. b. Peasant Rebellions
         1. i. Pugachev rebellion – Cossack chieftain – promised
            1. 1. End to serfdom
            2. 2. End to taxation
            3. 3. End to military conscription
            4. 4. End to landed aristocracy
         2. ii. Eventually put down after roaming Southern Russia
            1. 1. Cut into pieces in Moscow square
   5. E. Russia and Eastern Europe
      1. a. Eastern Europe
         1. i. Changing boundaries
         2. ii. More embracing of enlightenment/scientific revolution – contributed scholars
      2. b. Nationalities lose autonomy
         1. i. Hungary part of German Hapsburgs
         2. ii. Czech part of Hapsburgs - Bohemians
      3. c. Decline of Poland
         1. i. Link to west – Catholic
         2. ii. Political aristocrats chose weak kings on purpose
            1. 1. Vetoed reform efforts
         3. ii. Poland split into three parts
5. V. Global Connections
   1. A. Why so significant?
      1. a. Huge land empire – 10 time zones
      2. b. Different from w. Europe, but huge impact

Chapter 19
Early Latin America

1. I. Introduction
   1. A. Cortes conquers Aztecs
      1. 1. Amazed at beauty of Tenochtitlan - uncomparable
   2. B. Pattern of conquest, continuity and rebuilding
      1. 1. Spanish tried to utilized Native resources similarly
         1. a. Used materials from ruins to build own houses
         2. b. Used similar forced labor system
         3. c. Allowed to follow ancient customs
   3. C. Impact of invasions
      1. 1. Huge Spanish/Portuguese empires
      2. 2. Latin America pulled into new world economy
      3. 3. Hierarchy of world economic relationships – Europe on top
      4. 4. New societies created – some incorporated, some destroyed
         1. a. Distinct civilization combining Iberian Peninsula w/ Native
      5. 5. Created large landed estates
      6. 6. Europeans came to Americas for economic gain and social mobility
      7. 7. Exploited precious metals
2. II. Spaniards and Portuguese: From Reconquest to Conquest
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Iberian Peninsula on the Eve of Exploration
         1. a. Tradition of military conquest and rule over other peoples
         2. b. Ferdinand and Isabella – unified and destroyed religious diversity
            1. a. Jews expelled
            2. b. Religious contributed to acceptance of Columbus’s idea
   2. B. Iberian Society and Tradition
      1. 1. Recreating Iberian life
         1. a. Urban cities surrounded by American Indians
         2. b. Conquerors as nobles with Indians as serfs
         3. c. Precedent of controlling African slaves
      2. 2. Political rule
         1. a. Professional bureaucracy
         2. b. Theocracy – religion and Church influenced politics – vice versa
      3. 3. Role of merchants
         1. a. Trading posts in Africa, but estates in Atlantic islands
         2. b. Trade factories turned into plantations - Brazil
   3. C. The Chronology of Conquest
      1. 1. Era of Conquest – 1492>1570 – administration and economy set-up
      2. 2. Consolidation and Maturity – 1570>1700 – colonial institutions
      3. 3. Reform and Reorganization – 1700>1800 – Reform and reorganization
         1. a. Seeds of dissatisfaction and revolt
   4. D. The Caribbean Crucible
      1. 1. Early island conquests – Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Cuba
      2. 2. Treatment of natives – Taino natives distributed to encomendero
      3. 3. City precedents – gridlike around central plaza – church, town hall, governor’s
      4. 4. Methods of rule – governors, treasury officials, notaries, Spanish laws brought
      5. 5. Early immigration
         1. a. Import African slaves
         2. b. Women came also – conquest goal turned to settlement
         3. c. Gold hunting phase initial then replaced by sugar plantations
      6. 6. Treatment of Natives – enslavement, disease, murder
      7. 7. Attempts at reform
         1. a. Clerics and priests tried to end abuses
         2. b. Bartolome d Las Casas – wrote of complaints
   5. E. The Paths of Conquest
      1. 1. Taking over Central Mexico – between 1519 and 1535
         1. a. Not a movement, but series of individual initiatives
         2. b. Cortez defeats Aztecs in Tenochtitlan
      2. 2. Taking over South America
         1. a. Pizarro and Incas – Peru by 1540
      3. 3. Further exploration
         1. a. Densely populated areas first, then went after semisedentary/nomadic
         2. b. Coronado searches for gold goes into US
         3. c. 1570 192 Spanish cities and towns
   6. F. The Conquerors
      1. 1. Motivation
         1. a. 1/5 of all treasure to crown
         2. b. Money then divided among men signed up, priority to friends/relatives
      2. 2. Types of people that were conquerors
         1. a. Hoping to improve selves
         2. b. Serve God by conquering heathen
         3. c. soldiers, gentlemen, some women
         4. d. saw selves as new nobility
      3. 3. Reasons for Spanish success
         1. a. Weapons – firearms/steel weapons
         2. b. Effective/ruthless leadership
         3. c. Epidemic diseases – smallpox, influenza, measles
         4. d. Internal divisions rivalries between Indians
         5. e. Mobile, nomadic tribes stiffer resistance than centralized states
      4. 4. Who replaced conquerors?
         1. a. bureaucrats, merchants, colonists
         2. b. sometimes conflict over transfer of power
   7. G. Conquest and Morality
      1. 1. Reasons why treatment of Natives justified
         1. a. Aristotle argument – freeing Indians from unjust lord
         2. b. Indians not fully human
         3. c. Born to serve
      2. 2. Reasons why treatment of Natives not justified
         1. a. Rational people
         2. b. Never done harm like the Muslims
         3. c. Admirable customs and accomplishments
         4. d. Conversion should take place peacefully – Indians our brothers
      3. 3. Spanish crown tried to make changes, but too late
3. III. The Destruction and Transformation of Indian Societies
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Decline of population
         1. a. Caribbean population almost disappears – slavery, mistreatment, disease
         2. b. Mexico – 25 million > 2 million, Peru – 10 million >
         3. 1.5 million
      2. 2. Reasons for loss of population
         1. a. Disease
         2. b. Disruption of economic social structures – those left in chaos
         3. c. Cattle replaced Indian population on Spanish farms/unclaimed land
   2. B. Exploitation of the Indians
      1. 1. Native American life preserved
         1. a. Nobility kept in place to facilitate tax collection, labor demands
      2. 2. New methods of labor and taxation
         1. a. Encomienda system – use Indians as workers/servants/tax them
         2. b. Often arbitrary, excessive
         3. c. Without reciprocal obligation/protection – what have you done for me lately?
         4. d. Encomiendas ended because Spain didn’t want to compete with new nobility
         5. e. Thousands of Indians mobilized for state projects
         6. f. Some left towns and worked for Spanish – start of wage labor system
      3. 3. Resiliency to exploitation
         1. a. Some adapted and learned to use language, legal system, law courts
         2. b. Selective in their adaptation of European foods, technology, culture
4. IV. Colonial Economies and Governments
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Agrarian society – 80% worked on farms
      2. 2. Precious metals – mining efforts/booty of conquest essential activity
   2. B. The Silver Heart of Empire
      1. 1. Mining labor and methods
         1. a. Potosi in Peru – 160,000 people lived/worked in town/mine
         2. b. Laborers
            1. a. American Indian slaves – early encomienda system
            2. b. Changed to large # of wage laborers eventually
            3. c. Used European method of amalgamation w/ mercury (ahhhh…of course)
      2. 2. Relation of mining to economy
         1. a. Gov’t profited 1/5 of profit + controlled mercury
         2. b. Service industries develop around mining towns
   3. C. Haciendas and Villages
      1. 1.Rural estates – basis of wealth and power for local aristocracy
         1. a. Some plantation crops sent overseas
   4. D. Industry and Commerce
      1. 1. Types of trade
         1. a. Sheep raising and textile manufacturing
         2. b. Mercantilism – only Spaniards allowed to trade w/ America
            1. 1. consulado in Seville controlled all goods – kept prices high
      2. 2. Fleet system
         1. a. Convoy system sent two fleets annually
            1. 1. Came from Philippines as well twice annually
         2. b. Galleons protected
         3. c. ports created to guard treasure
      3. 3. European reaction to supply of American silver
         1. a. ½ of silver remained in Spain
            1. 1. Paid for Spanish wars
            2. 2. Bought manufactured goods from elsewhere and then shipped
         2. b. Sharp rise in inflation
         3. c. Wealth of Spain still depended on taxation
         4. d. Bankers lended more money than they should have
   5. E. Ruling an Empire: State and Church
      1. 1. Determining sovereignty
         1. a. North/South line – Treaty of Tordesillas – Brazil vs. everything else
      2. 2. Method of control of Spanish kingdoms
         1. a. University trained bureaucrats – letrados
         2. b. Codified laws – Recopilacion
         3. c. Two viceroyalties – one in Mexico City and one in Lima
            1. 1. Viceroys controlled military, legislative, judicial powers
         4. d. Under viceroys – audiencias – professional magistrates at local level
      3. 3. Role of the Church
         1. a. Established churches in towns/villages
         2. b. Set up missions in frontier areas
         3. c. Recording and analysis of Indian culture – for conversion purposes
         4. d. Later, state appointed archbishops – subsequently, allegiance
      4. 4. Impact of the Church
         1. a. Stimulated architects with church/cathedral building
         2. b. printing presses high percentage of religious books
         3. c. Schools run by clergy, universities – law and theology
         4. d. Tribunal of Inquisition to judge heretics
5. V. Brazil: The First Plantation Colony
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Early settlements
         1. a. At first, relations with Native Americans peaceful
         2. b. Sugar plantations established
         3. c. By 1600, 100,000 residents – 30,000 Europeans, 15,000 black slaves
   2. B. Sugar and Slavery
      1. 1. Labor intensive
         1. a. Sugar had to be processed on site
         2. b. Required large amounts of capital for machinery – plantation only viable
      2. 2. First great plantation economy
         1. a. Single crop produced by slave labor
         2. b. Social hierarchy reflected plantation/slave origins
            1. 1. White planter family as aristocracy
         3. c. Slaves at bottom of social hierarchy
         4. d. Mixed origin – became artisans, small farmers, herders, free laborers
      3. 3. Government structure
         1. a. Royal officials trained in law ruled by governor
         2. b. Jesuits – religious group supported by cattle ranches/sugar mills
         3. c. Didn’t have independent printing presses, intellectual life
            1. 1. Closer connection to Portugal than New Spain to Spain
   3. C. Brazil’s Age of Gold
      1. 1. Competition with Europe
         1. a. Affected by change in ruling monarchies
         2. b. French entrance into Caribbean lowered price of sugar, increased slave price
      2. 2. Gold rush begins
         1. a. 1695 gold discovered in interior regions
         2. b. 5000 immigrants a year, went to interior
         3. c. Used slaves for mining labor
         4. d. Wild towns initially turned into network of towns
         5. e. 1735>1760 Brazil greatest producer of gold in the world
      3. 3. Impact of gold discovery
         1. a. Opened interior to settlement
            1. 1. Hurt indigenous population
         2. b. Mining stimulated opening of new areas to ranching and farming
         3. c. Rio de Janeiro – closest port to mines – grew
         4. d. Hierarchy of color in new areas
         5. e. Portugal continued negative economic policies
            1. 1. Buy manufactured goods from abroad, not make
               1. a. Gold went from Portugal to England
               2. b. Trade imbalance
               3. c. Became economically dependent on England
6. VI. Multiracial Societies
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Relation of different ethnic groups
         1. a. Europeans, Indians, slaves
            1. 1. All came for different reasons
            2. 2. Hierarchy based on
               1. i. master vs. servant
               2. ii. Christian vs. pagan
   2. B. The Society of Castas
      1. 1. Miscegenation
         1. a. Few European women available
         2. b. Sexual exploitation of women or marriage = mestizos
         3. c. Mestizos
            1. 1. Intermediary – higher than Indians, but not as respected as Spanish
            2. 2. Sociedad de castas
               1. a. Occupation important, but race at birth more instrumental
               2. b. Castas – people of mixed origin
                  1. 1. Mulattoes – half African/half European
                  2. 2. Mestizos – half Spanish/half Indian
               3. c. With marriage, hard to tell – someone lower could pass off as someone higher
            3. 3. Class privileges
               1. a. Peninsulares – whites born in Spain
               2. b. Creoles – whites born in New World
                  1. 1. Dominated local economies
                  2. 2. Sensitive to any suggestion of inferiority
                  3. 3. Would be the leaders of future protest movements
                  4. 4. Patriarchal society
                     1. a. Father has control of children to 25
                     2. b. Women – motherhood and household
                     3. c. Widow could assume direction of family
                     4. d. Lower-class could be involved in commerce
                     5. e. Marriages often arranged, came with dowry
                     6. f. Women full rights of inheritance
                     7. g. After a certain age, unmarried upper class women moved to convents
7. VII. The 18th Century Reforms
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Changing ideas
         1. a. Amigos del pais – friends of the country – clubs that discussed reforms
            1. i. Goal – economic benefits
         2. b. Brief period of growth followed by decline
            1. i. expansion of European population
            2. ii. increased demand for American products
   2. B. The Shifting Balance of Politics and Trade
      1. 1. Competition with Europe
         1. a. Problems in Spain
            1. i. foreign wars
            2. ii. increasing debt
            3. iii. declining population
            4. iv. internal revolts
         2. b. Pressure from France, England, Dutch
            1. i. Buccaneers raided Caribbean ports
            2. ii. General process of colonization in Americas
      2. 2. Failure of Spanish mercantile and political system
         1. a. Annual fleets became irregular
         2. b. Silver payments became fewer
         3. c. Goods shipped to colonies not Spanish
         4. d. Colonies became self-sufficient
            1. i. Mfg needed products
            2. ii. Local gov’ts became more powerful
         5. e. Graft/corruption common
      3. 3. Legal division of Spanish properties
         1. a. Spanish king dies without heir – War of the Spanish Succession
         2. b. Treaty of Utrecht – 1713 – French merchants gain more control
            1. i. Bourbon (French) king, but can’t unite France/Spain
   3. C. The Bourbon Reforms
      1. 1. Causes of reform
         1. a. Age of enlightened despotism
         2. b. Strong central government
         3. c. economic nationalism
         4. d. Kicked out anyone who didn’t want to change – Jesuits tied to Rome
         5. e. Improvements
            1. i. French bureaucratic models
            2. ii. Tightened system of taxation
            3. iii. New navy
            4. iv. Fleet system abolished, new ports opened
            5. v. Try to get rid of graft
            6. vi. New methods of tax collection
      2. 2. Reform in the West Indies
      3. 3. Reforms in America
         1. a. Defense and military reforms
         2. b. Missions and outposts in frontier areas – California
         3. c. Resisted foreign competitors militarily
      4. 4. Changing trading regulations
         1. a. State monopolies established over tobacco, gunpowder
         2. b. Influx of cheap Spanish/English goods
            1. i. Conflict over free trade vs. locally made/more expensive goods
      5. 5. Impact of changes
         1. a. Spain - Revived Spanish Empire
         2. b. America – social tension
            1. i. removal of Creoles from gov’t
            2. ii. creation of Creole militia
            3. iii. dissatisfaction among elite
   4. D. Pombal and Brazil
      1. 1. Pombal’s reforms
         1. a. Fiscal reforms to eliminate – contraband, gold smuggling, tax evasion
         2. b. Creation of monopoly companies
            i. Sent to develop Amazon region
         3. c. Encouraged whites to marry Indians – don’t need to be military controlled
      2. 2. Impact of Pombal’s reforms
         1. a. Reduced Portugal’s trade imbalance
         2. b. Demand for Brazilian products low
         3. c. Hard to compete in European market
         4. d. Set stage for independence at end of 18th century
   5. E. Reforms, Reactions and Revolts
      1. 1. 18th century American boom
         1. a. Population increase
            1. i. lower mortality
            2. ii. increasing fertility
            3. iii. increasing immigration
            4. iv. rising slave trade
      2. 2. Changes in power
         1. a. Greater control from Spain/Portugal annoyed old power elite
         2. b. Urban uprisings, tax revolts, Indian uprisings
      3. 3. Tupac – not the rapper
         1. a. Tupac Amaru – mestizo in Peru
         2. b. Led 70,000 Indians, Mestizos and Creoles – eventually executed
      4. 4. What led to complaints and frustration
         1. a. Activism by mother country government
         2. b. Dissatisfaction of American colonies
         3. c. But…sharp ethnic divisions made it difficult to unify locals
8. VIII. Global Connections
   1. A. Colonial Empires
      1. 1. Iberian nations transferred their culture, gov’t – recreated society
   2. B. Diverse societies
      1. 1. Some indigenous cultures survived – Peru, Mexico
      2. 2. Culture dependent on demographic breakdown – more slaves, Europeans, or Natives
      3. 3. Racial hierarchies
   3. C. Relation to Russian Empires
      1. 1. Development of coerced labor
      2. 2. Impact of gunpowder
      3. 3. Western forms imposed on populations, with resistance – Russia more selective
   4. D. Demand for Latin American products
      1. 1. World economic position as dependant and based on coerced labor

Chapter 20
Africa and the Africans in the Age of the Atlantic Slave Trade

1. I. Introduction
   1. A. Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua – symbol of slavery
      1. 1. Muslim trader > African slavery > African slave trade > Missionary
   2. B. Impact of outsiders on Africa
      1. 1. Islam first, then African developed at own pace, West had big impact
   3. C. Influence of Europe
      1. 1. Path of Africa becomes linked to European world economy
      2. 2. Diaspora – mass exodus of people leaving homeland
      3. 3. Slave trade dominated interactions
      4. 4. Not all of Africa affected to the same degree
   4. D. Effects of global interactions
      1. 1. Forced movement of Africans improved Western economies
      2. 2. Transfer of African culture > adapted to create new culture
      3. 3. Most of African still remained politically independent
   5. E. Trends
      1. 1. Islam increased position in East
      2. 2. Christianity stayed in Ethiopia
      3. 3. Growth of African kingdoms
2. II. The Atlantic Slave Trade
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Portuguese voyagers
         1. 1. Set up forts – fairly low scale – not huge impact initially
      2. 2. Traders
         1. 1. Ivory, pepper, animal skins gold for slaves initially
         2. 2. Mulattos and Portuguese gradually spread inland
         3. 3. Commerce leads to political, social, religious relations
            1. 1. Impressed by power of many interior kingdoms – Benin
            2. 2. Attempts at Christian conversion
               1. a. Kongo most successful – king and kingdom converted
               2. b. Ambassadors/exchange of ideas
               3. c. Oddly, relationship ends when Kongo people get enslaved
         4. 4. First contact – preconceptions, appreciation, curiosity
            1. 1. Portuguese looked strange, some tribes started portraying them artistically
         5. 5. Portuguese exploration
            1. 1. Set up Portuguese settlements on the West coast
            2. 2. Goal primarily commercial/military, but also missionary
         6. 6. Patterns of contact – shared ideas
            1. 1. fortified trading stations
            2. 2. combination of force and diplomacy
            3. 3. alliances with local rulers
            4. 4. predominance of commercial relations - $ uniting factor – that’s odd
         7. 7. History of African slave trade
            1. 1. Slavery existed in Rome, replaced by serfdom in Middle Ages
            2. 2. Brought to Mediterranean intermittently by Iberian peninsula
            3. 3. After 1441, became common trading item
               1. a. trade more effective than raids
         8. 8. Added impetus
            1. 1. sugar plantations in Atlantic islands off Africa creates need
            2. 2. Later adapted to Americas
   2. B. Trend Toward Expansion
      1. 1. Numbers of slave
         1. a. 1450-1850 – 12 million slaves shipped
         2. b. Mortality rate 10-20% on ships
            1. a. Millions more die in capture process/resulting wars
         3. c. Largest period in 18th century – 7 million
      2. 2. Reason for high volume
         1. a. Mortality rates high
         2. b. Fertility low
         3. c. Reproduction level higher in S. USA
            1. a. Different labor – not sugar plantations, mining
            2. b. Reproduction encouraged
            3. c. Milder climate
            4. d. More concentration - 80-90% of pop in L. America, 25% in Brit America
         4. 3. Reasons for shifts in volume
            1. a. Sugar made Caribbean major terminal
         5. 4. Regions of concentration
            1. a. Brazil/Caribbean major destinations
            2. b. 3 million slaves also as part of Red Sea, Muslim trade, trans-Sahara
   3. C. Demographic Patterns
      1. 1. Types of captives
         1. a. Trans-Saharan focused on women
         2. b. Atlantic slave trade focused on men
            1. a. Heavy labor
            2. b. High mortality of children – didn’t want
            3. c. W/ capture – African tribes liked to keep women/children for self
      2. 2. Demographic effects
         1. a. Population cut by 50%
         2. b. Becomes skewed toward more women
         3. c. New crops – maize/manioc allowed numbers to recover
   4. D. Organization of the Trade
      1. 1. Relation to European power
         1. a. As Dutch/British emerge as power in Europe – want control of slave trade
            1. 1. British – Royal African Company
         2. b. Each has agents and forts
      2. 2. Merchant towns
         1. a. Mortality rates quite high – tropical diseases - malaria
      3. 3. Connections between Europeans and African traders
         1. a. Indies piece – basis of currency = adult male, everything related to that
         2. b. Brought to coast
            1. 1. African/mulatto agents purchased captives interior
            2. 2. Some taxed movement of slaves
            3. 3. Some states tried to establish monopolies
         3. c. Collaboration – European or African domination
      4. 4. Profitability of slave trade
         1. a. Yes, profitable
            1. a. Up to 300% for slaving voyage
         2. b. But…still dangerous, with risks
            1. a. On average 5-10% growth, better than other ventures
            2. b. Didn’t contribute a ton to $ for Industrial Revolution
         3. c. However…a huge part of triangular trade
            1. a. Led to increased production
            2. b. Economies needed cog in the cycle
            3. c. Huge part of increasingly integrated world economy
3. III. African Societies, Slavery and the Slave Trade
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. African forms of servitude
         1. a. Variety of forms of servitude from peasant status to chattel (property) slavery
         2. b. Method of increasing wealth – land owned by state
         3. c. Variety of uses – servants, concubines, soldiers, administrators, field workers
         4. d. Some slaves part of lineage system
         5. e. Some exploited
         6. f. Denied choice about lives/actions
         7. g. Enslavement of women central feature
            1. a. Used to extend lineage
            2. b. Led to polygamy/harems
         8. h. Sudanic states - Muslim
            1. a. Slavery legal for nonbelievers, illegal for Muslims
               1. 1. But…still some Muslims were enslaved
         9. i. Rarely enslaved own people, usually neighboring tribes
            1. a. Expanding states major suppliers
      2. 2. Relation between preexisting slavery and new slave trade
         1. a. Pre-existing condition could be readily tapped by Europeans
   2. B. Slaving and African Politics
      1. 1. Intensified enslavement and altered nature of slavery
      2. 2. Many competing city-states
         1. a. Military importance
         2. b. Some historians argue that slavery led to more wars
      3. 3. Results
         1. a. Europe blocked coastal states from gaining to much political/economic power
         2. b. Interior kingdoms gained more power – turned to cycle of guns for slaves
   3. C. Asante and Dahomey
      1. 1. Asante on Gold Coast – example of empire that benefited from slave trade
         1. a. Controlled gold and slave trade
         2. b. Osei Tutu – 1717 – asantehene – supreme religious/civil ruler
      2. 2. Benin – controlled slavery, but never let dominate
      3. 3. Dahomey – controlled slavery by royal court – 1.8 million slaves
      4. 4. Creativity emerges with centralized states
         1. a. Leaders challenged by local officials
         2. b. Art flourished – oftentimes patronized by royal courts
            1. 1. Some art purchased by nobles
   4. D. East Africa and the Sudan
      1. 1. Swahili Coast – East Coast
         1. a. Commercial centers come under control of Ottomans and Portuguese
      2. 2. Slave trade existed
         1. a. Most to harems of Arabia
         2. b. Some to Portuguese plantations
      3. 3. Some island plantations emerged off coast of Africa
      4. 4. Interior area not as affected
      5. 5. Islamization enters violent phase in 18th century
         1. a. Reform movement
         2. b. Effects
            1. 1. New political units
            2. 2. New Islam eliminated pagan practices
            3. 3. Literacy spread
4. IV. White Settlers and Africans in Southern Africa
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Southern Africa barely affected
      2. 2. Politically chiefdoms
         1. a. Process of expansion as relatives spread
      3. 3. Dutch East India Company creates plantations in the South – Cape Colony
         1. a. As Dutch farmers, Boers/Afrikaners, pushed further inland – conflict
         2. b. In great trek – Boers moved far north to be free of Dutch rule
   2. B. The Mfecane and the Zulu Rise to Power
      1. 1. Shaka Zulu – iron discipline + new tactics takes over surrounding areas
         1. a. Erratic, cruel behavior brought region under control – created enemies
      2. 2. Mfecane – wars of crushing and wandering
         1. a. Forced migrations and campaigns led to conflicts
      3. 3. Pattern of conflict in the South
         1. a. competition between settlers and Africans for land
         2. b. expanding influence of European government control
         3. c. desire of Europeans to use Africans as laborers
5. V. The African Diaspora
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Trade
         1. a. Imports: European firearms, Indian textiles, Indonesian cowrie shells, American tobacco
         2. b. Exports: ivory, gold, slaves
            1. 1. Price of these items steadily grew – benefited traders
   2. B. Slave Lives
      1. 1. Separation from friends/family
      2. 2. Forced march to coastal pens
      3. 3. Middle Passage – traumatic – up to 20% mortality
         1. a. Poor hygiene
         2. b. Dysentery
         3. c. Disease
         4. d. Bad treatment
         5. e. Reaction – suicide/mutiny
      4. 4. Retained languages, beliefs, traditions, memories
   3. C. Africans in the Americas
      1. 1. Large plantations – sugar, rice, cotton, tobacco
      2. 2. Mining
      3. 3. Replaced indigenous people/indentured servitude
      4. 4. Most agricultural, but some artisans, street vendors, household servants
   4. D. American Slave Societies
      1. 1. Saltwater slaves – African-born
      2. 2. Creole slaves – American-born
         1. a. Mulattos
         2. b. Sexual exploitation
         3. c. Miscegenation
      3. 3. Hierarchy based on skin color – race
         1. a. Free whites down to darkest slaves
         2. b. Creoles/mulattoes given more freedom
      4. 4. Variety of slavery in Americas
         1. a. Peru – blacks outnumber
         2. b. Caribbean – vastly outnumbered
         3. c. Brazil – large population
            1. 1. More diverse
            2. 2. tradition of manumission
            3. 3. More miscegenation
         4. d. USA South – depended more on reproduction less on imports
            1. 1. less dependent on Africa
            2. 2. reduced degree of African cultural reinforcement
   5. E. The People and Gods in Exile
      1. 1. Family problems
         1. a. Males outnumber females – maybe 3 to 1
         2. b. Families sold away at whim
         3. c. Marriages not legally/religiously sanctioned
      2. 2. Afro-American roots – African culture + new reality
      3. 3. Religion
         1. a. Converted to Catholicism in Spain/Portugal
         2. b. But…maintained old
            1. 1. obeah - English islands – maintain African practices
         3. c. Adaptation of old
            1. 1. Don’t have all the priestly class immigrate
            2. 2. Held both beliefs
         4. d. Harder for Muslim Africans to maintain
      4. 4. Resistance and Rebellion
         1. a. Running away
            1. 1. Some create runaway kingdoms
         2. b. Direct confrontation
            1. 1. Most famous – Suriname – former Dutch plantation colony
         3. c. Feigned laziness
   6. F. The End of the Slave Trade and the Abolition of Slavery
      1. 1. Result of economic, political and religious changes
      2. 2. Based on factors beyond Africans control
         1. a. Enlightenment, age of revolution, Christian revivalism, Industrial Revolution
      3. 3. Africans begin to trade other items – peanuts, cotton, palm oil
      4. 4. Enlightenment – seen as backward and immoral – slave trade symbolized cruelty
      5. 5. England led change – William Wilberforce – abolitionist
         1. a. Pressured other countries
         2. b. 1888 finally abolished in Brazil
6. VI. Global Connections
   1. A. Africa and the African Diaspora in World Context
      1. 1. Africa placed at a disadvantage in world markets
      2. 2. Movement of millions of people
      3. 3. Created vibrant new cultural forms
      4. 4. Altered political, economic structures

Chapter 21
The Muslim Empires

1. I. Introduction
   1. A. Muslim world essentially destroyed by those pesky Mongols
   2. B. But then…out of nowhere…came the return of the Muslims
      1. 1. Ottoman Empire – the biggest
      2. 2. Safavid Empire – Afghanistan and Iran
      3. 3. Mughal – the northern part of India
   3. C. These “gunpowder empires” could be compared with Russia and the West
      1. 1. In fact…they probably will be on a test not far, far away
         1. a. All militarily important
         2. b. Interacted far less with west than Russia
         3. c. Maintained control over how much they wanted to deal w/ West
2. II. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Turkic-speaking peoples
         1. a. Some fleeing Mongols, some looking for booty
         2. b. Osman leads one of these peoples – the Ottomans
      2. 2. Ottomans attack Byzantine Empire
         1. a. Finally Mehmed II defeats Constantinople
         2. b. Big bad guns too much for big bad walls
      3. 3. Extending the Ottoman Empire
         1. a. Scary naval power in Mediterranean
         2. b. Spread empire down to Egypt and across N. Africa
            1. 1. Looks kind of like what the Roman Empire looked like, w/out Europe
         3. c. Threatened Vienna, but didn’t take
         4. d. But…Europe afraid of Ottomans for centuries…always in back of mind
            1. 1. Near the hypothalamus area
   2. B. A State Geared to Warfare
      1. 1. Economy and social class based on warfare
         1. a. Warrior class goes to top…surprise…guess who got to make the rules
         2. b. Competed for power with religious leaders and administrators
      2. 2. Army of Janissaries
         1. a. aka “Really Good Christian Slave Soldiers that Fight For Us”
            1. 1. Some given by parents, some taken forcibly
            2. 2. Schooled and could become bureaucrats
            3. 3. Hey…this is another type of coerced labor…interesting
         2. b. Became more powerful than cavalry – threatened aristocracy
            1. 1. What’s scarier…Mr. Ed the Horse or a canon and gun?
   3. C. The Sultans and Their Court
      1. 1. Sultans control those beneath and economy
         1. a. Manipulated factions – aristocracy, religious, administrators
         2. b. Commerce given to Christians/Jews – “people of the book”
      2. 2. Sultans grow distant from the masses
         1. a. This will surprise you, but…sultans got richer
         2. b. Spent all their days blowing money on wives, rituals and palaces
         3. c. Viziers ended up taking control – think Prime Minister
      3. 3. Problems with succession
         1. a. Like the rest of the Muslim world (similarity), succession confusing
         2. b. When you have a harem, you have many sons
            1. 1. You die…they fight each other
            2. 2. Losing sons sometimes fled to enemy nations to stage revolt
   4. D. Constantinople Restored and the Flowering of Ottoman Culture
      1. 1. Changing Constantinople
         1. a. After destroyed/sacked – rebuilt
         2. b. Hagia Sophia converted from cathedral to mosque
         3. c. Aqueducts built, markets reopened, city’s walls repaired
      2. 2. Future sultans try to improve mosques, infrastructure
         1. a. Architecture blends best of Muslim/Byzantine world
            1. a. Mansions, rest houses, schools, hospitals, gardens
         2. b. Fun and exciting markets
         3. c. Coffeehouses became centers of socialization, literary sharing and ingesting of caffeinated beverages
      3. 3. Regulation of merchants and artisans
         1. a. Government inspectors monitored quality of goods/artisans
         2. b. Artisans joined together in guilds – that sounds just like Europe
      4. 4. Language shift to Turkish
         1. a. Ummm…they shifted language to Turkish – literature and official business
   5. E. The Problem of Ottoman Decline
      1. 1. Different perspectives of Ottoman Empire
         1. a. Some talk about how bad decline was
         2. b. Eventually became “sick man” of Europe
            1. 2. Long decline means actually quite strong
               1. a. How many other empires have are around for 600 years
                  1. 1. US has been an empire for about 61 years…but we’ve been declining for 28 months
               2. b. By 17th century, they started retreat from Russia, Europe, Arab lands
               3. c. Too large to be maintained – gave regional autonomy
            2. 3. Breakdown of regional administration
               1. a. Officials became corrupt
                  1. 1. Locals leaders hold back money from incompetent nincompoops
                  2. 2. Some rebellions at the local level
            3. 4. Problems of imperial administration
               1. a. Future leaders not groomed, but hidden away for protection
                  1. 1. Monarchs kept alive, but fairly unprepared/naïve
               2. b. Leaders no longer fierce military leaders, but pampered
               3. c. Power of military started to fade
   6. F. Military Reverses and the Ottoman Retreat
      1. 1. Ottomans fall further behind Europeans
         1. a. Reliance on super huge cannons
         2. b. Janissaries don’t want military change that threatens their position
            1. 1. Sounds a bit like the samurai…oohh…another connection
         3. 2. Muslim sea power ends in 16th century
            1. a. Battle of Lepanto – Spanish/Venetians wipe them out
            2. b. Fleet rebuilt, but damage done
               1. 1. Portuguese have head start on Africa
               2. 2. Spanish/Venetians control Eastern Mediterranean
            3. 3. Empire changes around world affect Ottoman finances
               1. a. Christian European rivals get rich off of new goods
               2. b. Tax collectors/merchants no longer making money
                  1. 1. No need to go through Ottoman Empire
               3. c. Tons of bullion (aka silver) enters market
                  1. 1. Too much bullion equals high inflation
            4. 4. Refusal to accept European ideas dooms empire
               1. a. Falling behind in scientific, technological, commercial transformations
               2. b. Also…in trade and warfare
                  1. 1. Arab world believed Europe has nothing to offer
                     1. a. Ohhh…poor naïve little fellas
                  2. 2. Conservative religious groups – nothing new
                     1. a. Want to protect position – remember Janissaries
3. III. The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. History of Shi’a/Sunni Conflict
         1. a. Like Ottomans
            1. 1. Rose from Turkic nomadic struggles
            2. 2. Also represent militant Islam
         2. b. However…they are Shi’a – Ali and Muhammad’s ancestors should rule
         3. c. Battle between Safavid Shi’a and Ottoman Sunni still lasts today
            1. 2. Origins of empire
               1. a. Started with Sufi mystic Sail al-Din wanted to purify/reform Islam
                  1. 1. This led to a lot of enemies
               2. b. Eventually Isma’il took Tabriz and became emperor
            2. 3. Battle of Chaldiran
               1. a. N. West Persia – Shi’a vs. Sunni – battle for everything
                  1. 1. This would be like if the Catholics and Protestants had one big battle to decide who will rule all of Europe
               2. b. Isma’il’s cavalry destroyed by Ottoman firepower
            3. 4. Significance of Chaldiran
               1. a. Ottoman’s couldn’t maintain empire
               2. b. Safavid empire can’t move further west
               3. c. Spread of Shi’a Islam doesn’t go further west
                  1. 1. Shi’a mostly Iran and part of Southern Iraq
                     1. a. Yes…there are problems today because of that
   2. B. Politics and War Under the Safavid Shahs
      1. 1. Years of turmoil
         1. a. Isma’il depressed due to loss, started years of turmoil
         2. b. Relative piece/height of empire – 1587-1629
      2. 2. Attempts to bring Turkish chiefs under control
         1. a. Given warrior nobility status – like Ottomans
            1. 1. They would threaten Shah for power
         2. b. Turkic nobles balanced by appointed Persians
         3. c. Plus…army of slave boys brought in to be administrators
            1. 1. Yep…kind of like Janissaries
               1. a. And yep…they were part of power struggle
      3. 3. Using outsiders as advisors and warriors
         1. a. These “slave regiments controlled firearms
         2. b. Not reluctant to use technological info from Europeans
            1. 1. Learned about casting of cannons and slave infantry from England
            2. 2. Armed 40,000 troops…attempt to secure domain
   3. C. State and Religion
      1. 1. Relation to Persia
         1. a. Persian replaces Turkish as spoken language
         2. b. Opulent palaces
         3. c. Grand titles – padishah – king of kings
         4. d. claimed descent from Shi’a imams – successors of Ali
      2. 2. Full theocracy
         1. a. Shi’a becomes dominant sect taught
         2. b. Mullahs – religious/prayer leaders supervised by state
            1. 1. Taught must curse first three caliphs
            2. 2. Teaching in mosque schools regulated by government
            3. 3. Forced conversions to Shi’ism
               1. a. Iranian identity – Shi’ism
               2. b. Forced Jews, Sunnis, Sufi, Christians, Zoraster
               3. c. Shi’a Religious festivals
                  1. 1. Public flagellation
                  2. 2. Passion plays
                  3. 3. Pilgrimages to shrine – Karbala in Iraq
   4. D. Elite Affluence and Artistic Splendor
      1. 1. Restoring mosques and improving infrastructure
         1. a. 17th century - Abbas I safe roads with rest stops
         2. b. Merchants trade with China/India and Europeans
         3. c. Ishafan mosques proved glory
            1. 1. geometric shapes, floral patterns, verses from Qur’an
            2. 2. Oasis of arches, greenery, colorful designs contrasted land
   5. E. Society and Gender Roles
      1. 1. Similar social issues between Ottomans and Safavids
         1. a. Both led by warrior aristocracy
         2. b. Retreated to estates – put huge financial drain on peasants
         3. c. Peasants hurt by foreign invasions, civil strife, breakdown of services
      2. 2. Role of handicraft
         1. a. Both encouraged handicraft/trade
         2. b. Both encouraged workshops for miniature paintings, rugs
         3. c. Both paid engineers well
         4. d. Both encouraged trade
            1. 1. Ottomans had advantage – Jews/Christians already trading Europe
      3. 3. Role of women – negative
         1. a. Women subordinated to fathers/husbands – surprise/surprise
         2. b. Women kept secluded/veiled – always more strict in cities
      4. 4. Role of women – positive
         1. a. Some women fought restrictions
            1. 1. Colorful robes, refused to be veiled

            b. Wives/concubines influenced rulers

            2. c. Protected inheritance laws – divorce possible
   6. 5. Overall status of women
      1. a. Some lived better than India/China
      2. b.Most lived llife with limited contact and had to stay in house
4. F. The Rapid Demise of the Safavid Empire
   1. 1. Causes of Decline
      1. a. Leaders kept in seclusion – become inept
      2. b. Eventually beat by nomads in 1722
      3. c. Become battleground for nomads/neighbors wanting to take over