Prehistory and Prehistoric Art

 

 

PREHISTORY: refers to the time period before people could write, the time before written records.

• Objects are the documents of record
• Challenage is to "read" the nonverbal info found in objects.

 

CHRONOLOGY: divided into three general phases

• Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) c40,000-8,000 BCE
• Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) c8,000-7,000 BCE
• Neolithic (New Stone Age) c7,000-2,300 BCE

 

 

Paleolithic Period

 

PAINTING-represents the most extensive example of Paleolithic art.

• Altimira, Spain-Bison (fig.1-9), c14,000-12,000 BCE
• Altimira, Spain-Dead Bison (fig.1-9), c14,000-12,000 BCE
• Lascaux, France-Well Scene c15,000-10,000 BCE
• Lascaux, France-Hall of Bulls (fig.1-11), c15,000-10,000 BCE
• Lascaux, France-Chinese Horse c15,000-10,000 BCE

 

SCULPTURE-examples predate painting and drawing in archaeological record.

• Venus of Willendorf (fig.1-4), Vienna, Austria, c30,000-25,000 BCE
• Venus of Laussel c23,000-20,000 BCE
• Woman from Brassempouy (fig.1-6), France, c22,000 BCE
• Bison (fig.1-13), Le Tuc d'Audoubert, France, c13,000BCE

 

Mesolithic Period

The Mesolithic was a transitional period, when the climatic, geographical and biological patterns of today were established. Artistically, the human figure was represented in groups rather than the single figure of the Paleolithic.

• Marching Warriors, Castellon, Spain, c7000-4000 BCE

 

Neolithic Period

 

 

 

Change from hunting and gathering to sedentary existence, new art form, monumental architecture, Megaliths-Greek-Megas, made from huge stones without mortar

• Carnac, France, c3,000 BCE
• Stonehenge, England (fig.1-21), c2750-1500 BCE

 

INTRODUCTION

It is in the Ancient Near east, that writing first began. With the invention of writing came written records that replaced the reliance upon images and oral traditionsas a means of keeping records.

 

 

• Geographically, the Ancient Near East refers to area that includes present day Turkey, Iran and Iraq.
• Populations first settled in the grassy areas surrounding the river valleys.The area was ideal for agriculture, with good soil, adequate rainfall and domesticated animals.
• As the population increased, the people began to move into the river valleys and delta regions.

CHRONOLOGY: divided into four general phases

• # Early Neolithic Communities 8000-5500 BCE
• # Ancient Mesopotamian Cultures 3200-330 BCE
• # Sumerian Period 3200-2225 BCE (includes the Akkadian Period)
• # Assyrian Period 1000-612 BCE

 

Early Neolithic Communities

 

Jericho-located on a plateau on the Jordan River.

• represents the world's oldest fortified community
• fortifications make the beginning of monumental architecture

SCULPTURE-examples from Jericho mark the beginning of monumental sculpture and individualized portraiture.

• Human Skull, c7000-6000 BCE

Chatal Huyuk-located in Anatolia, flourished 6500-5500 BCE.This area was the first to experiment in city planning.

SCULPTURE-most examples are small female figures

• Seated Goddess, Catal Huyuk, c5900 BCE

Sumerian Art

Between 3500 and 2800 BCE city-states began to emerge along the rivers of Southern Mesopotamia. The city-states of Sumer are considered to be one of the first great civilizations of man and are credited with inventing the first written language, cuneiform.

ARCHITECTURE-ziggurat-a stepped pyramid structure, with a temple or shrine located on top. Ziggurats were religious shrines, that symbolized a bridge between man on earth, and the gods in heaven.

• Nanna Ziggurat, Ur (modern Iraq) (fig.2-5), c2100-2050 BCE

 

SCULPTURE-Sumerian sculpture was religious in nature, representing Sumerian dieties.

• Face of Woman,from Urak (fig.2-6), c3500-3000 BCE
• Statuettes, from Temple of Abu, Tell Asmar (fig.2-9), c2900-2600 BCE
• Bull Lyre, from tomb of Queen Puabi of Ur (fig.2-11), c2685
• Standard of Ur, c2700 BCE

 

Akkadian Art

 

 

 

Approximately 2300 BCE, the city-states of Sumer came under the domination of a powerful ruler, Sargon I of Akkad. The Akkadians adopted Sumerian culture with one exception. It was under the leadership of Sargon, that devotion to the leader rather than the city-state became the political norm. The Akkadians ruled until 2180 BCE, when they were attacked and conquered by the Guti (only Lagash remained independent).

SCULPTURE-first examples of political works of art

• Head of Akkadian Ruler from Nineveh (fig.2-15), c2200 BCE
• Stela of Naramsin (fig. 2-16), c2254-2218 BCE

 

Babylonian Art

 

 

Sumer was once again fully united under the Babylonian ruler, Hammurabi in 1792 BCE. Hammurabi was most famous for his code of laws.

• Stela of Hammurabi, from Susa (fig.2-18), c1792-1750 BCE

 

 

Assyrian Art

 

 

 

• Guardian Figure, from throne room of Sargon II (fig.2-23), c720 BCE
• Citadel and Palace Complex of Sargon II (fig2-22), c721-706 BCE

Neo-Babylonian Art

 

 

• Ishtar Gate c575 BCE

Persian Art

• Apadana (audience hall) of Darius and Xerxes (fig 2-32) 518-c460 BCE

AP Art History
Egyptian Art

INTRODUCTION: The pyramids and sphinx of Egypt represent monuments that were built by a people who dominated Mid Eastern life for thousands of years.

CHRONOLOGY:Three major periods of Egyptian history

• Old Kingdom 2670-2150 BCE
• Middle Kingdom 2150-1800 BCE
• New Kingdom 1550-1070 BCE (includes Amarna period-1370-1350 BCE)

Old Kingdom

Prior to the emergence of the Old Kingdom, there exixted a Pre-dynastic period in Egypt. The Pre-dynastic period lasted from 4350-3150 BCE. It was a time of social and political transition. Finally in 3150, under the leadership of Menes, Upper and Lower Egypt were united as one kingdom. From this time on, pharaoh's (single rulers from the same family or dynsaty) ruled Egypt as absolute kings who received their powers from the gods.

It was during the Old Kingdom, that the traditions and standards of Egyptian art were established. Rules of construction and composition were established between Dynasty III and IV.

•  Palette of Narmer Dynasty I, (fig. 3-4), c3150-3125 BCE

ARCHITECTURE-One of the most important figures in Egyptian architecture was Imhotep, chancelor and court architect under Djoser (second ruler: Dynasty III). During the Early Dynastic period, funerary rites became an essential part of Egyptian culture. In keeping with this, the Egyptians created elaborate structures to help protect and preserve the bodies of the dead.

Mastabas, flat topped, one-story buildings were first erected above underground burial chambers. Mastabas were replaced during Dynasty III and IV to create elaborate and expensive pyramids to house their remains.

• Stepped Pyramid of Djoser Dynasty 3, (fig. 3-8), c2681-2662 BCE
• Wall of North Palace, w/ engaged columns, Dynasty 3 (fig.3-9), c2681-2662
• Great Pyramids Dynasty 4, (fig. 3-10), c2601-2515 BCE
• Great Sphinx Dynasty 4, (fig. 3-14), c2570-2544 BCE

SCULPTURE-Sculpted statues of themselves were very important to the pharaohs as a means of perpetuating their memories and protecting their "ka". All early Egyptian sculpture is characterized by (1) compactness (2) symmetry of form and (3) its block-like shape

• Khafre Dynasty 3, (fig. 3-13), c2570-2544 BCE
• Menkaure and His Wife Dynasty 4, (fig. 3-15), c2515 BCE
• Seated Scribe Dynasty 5, (fig. 3-17), c2510-2460 BCE

RELIEF SCULPTURE & PAINTING-Relief sculpture and painting were two ways used to decorate the interior walls of the tombs and create pleasant eternal living quarters for the deceased's "ka".

Middle Kingdom

One hundred years of political disorder followed the end of the Sixth Dynasty. regional overlords struggled for power and were too weak to protect the empire from invaders from Western Asia.

ARCHITECTURE-The architecture of the period was on a much smaller scale than that of the Ols Kingdom. Pharaohs still wanted pyramids but lacked the funds and social stability to accomplish the task of building on such a grand scale. Tombs became much smaller, cut from rock, with the only access via a steep rampway.

• Rock cut Tomb of Amenemhet Dynasty 12, (fig.3-21), c1991-1785 BCE

SCULPTURE-Due to the division of power, two schools of representation emerged. In the north, artists copied the idealized images found within the grand tombs of Old Kingdom pharaohs. In the south, artists did not have these images to copy.Their royal statues display a movement towards a more natural imagery.

• Senwosret Dynasty 12, (fig. 3-24), c1878-1842 BCE
• Portrait of Sesostris III Dynasty 12, c1875-1825 BCE

New Kingdom

True order and stability was not re-established until Dynasty 18. With the new era of peace and prosperity came a return to the construction of large temple complexes.The rulers of Dynasties 18-20 built more architectural and sculptural monuments than all of the other dynastic periods combined. The majority of the construction took place around the capital city of Thebes. During Dynasty 18 there was a radical change in the traditional Egyptian culture. This challenge came during the reign of Amenhotep IV, who questioned the power of the priest class and introduced the new form of religion closely associated with the sun-disk god, Aten. Amenhotep changed his name to Akhenaten and moved the capital to Tell-el-Amarna.

ARCHITECTURE-New Kingdom architecture was built on a monumental scale. The temple became the most representative of the Egyptian buildings, due to the tremendous power of the priest class. The classic New Kingdom temple had seven elements, all arranged on the same axis.Entry into the various rooms of the temple was based upon social class.

• Great Temple of Amun Dynasty 19, (fig. 3-30), c1294-1212 BCE
• Temple of Amun, Pylon of Ramesses II Dynasty 19, (fig. 3-31), c1279-1212 BCE
• Temples of Ramesses II and Nefertari Dynasty 19, (fig. 3-35), c1279-1212 BCE
• Funerary Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahri, Dynasty 20, (fig. 3-33), c2009-1997 BCE

SCULPTURE & PAINTING-Sculptural monuments to the pharaohs, designed as simplified cubic blocks became very popular during the New Kingdom. The shape of the cube emphasized the belief that the "ka" could find an eternal home within the block statue portraits. Wall paintings also continued in the traditions established in earlier kingdoms.

• Senmut with Princess Nefrua Dynasty 18, c1490-1460 BCE

AKHENATON AND THE AMARNA PERIOD

Amenhotep IV came to the throne in 1352 BCE. During his seventeen year reign, the traditional Egyptian culture was challenged to its very roots. Amenhotep Iv founded a new religion that no longer honored many gods, but focused on honoring a single supreme being, Aten, the sun-disk god. Amenhotep IV changed his name in 1348 BCE to Akhenaten and moved the capital from Thebes, north to Akhetaten (modern name Tell-el-Amarna). In addition to changing the social and religious nature of the civilization, a new style of art will characterize the Amarna Period.

The art of the Amarna Period will reflect a new more naturalistic approach in the rendering of the human figure.Artists will instill a new sense of life in their reliefs, wall paintings, statuary,

• Akhenaten and His Family Dynasty 18, (fig. 3-36), 1348-1336/5 BCE
• Queen Tiy Dynasty 18, (fig. 3-37), c1390-1352 BCE
• Queen Nefertiti Dynasty 18, (fig. 3-38) c1348-1336

TUTANKHAMEN AND THE POST-AMARNA PERIOD

The discovery of the tomb of King Tutankhamen in 1922 has told archaeologists and art historians more about the Amarna style than any other source. Perhaps the greatest aspect of the tomb's discovery was the young king's royal mummy that was placed in the inner most chamber of three nesting coffins. The mummy's actual coffin was made of one quarter ton of gold, inlaid with precious stones.

• Innermost Coffin of King Tutankhamen Dynasty 18, (fig. 3-40), c1325 BCE
• Death Mask of Tutankhamen Dynasty 18, (fig. 3-41), c1325 BCE
• Painted Chest Dynasty 18, (fig. 3-42), c1325 BCE

AP Art History

Aegean Art

INTRODUCTION

The three civilzations that flourished 5000-3000 years ago were the direct forerunners of the first true European civilization of Greece.

• Geographically,the Cycladic Islands, the Island of Crete and the region of Mycenae (on mainland Greece) comprise the region of the Aegean.
• Populations first settled in the region during the lower paleolithic and established village life during the early neolithic. The region reached its peak during the 2nd millenium BCE.
• The three cultures were dominated by the sea, that allowed them to develop with a wealthy trade economy, and acted as a natural defense against their enemies.

CHRONOLOGY

• Cycladic (Cyclades Islands) 3000-1600 BCE
• Minoan (Crete) 3000-1400 BCE
• Mycenean 1400-1100 BCE

Cycladic Art

 

Sculpture-Most examples date from the neolithic period and are female.

• Seated Man With Harp (fig.4-3), 3rd.millenium BCE
• Statuette of a Woman (fig.4-2), c2500-2000 BCE

Minoan Art

The people of the Minoan civilzation flourished on the island of Crete. They established a wealthy network of trade that enabled them to be economically self-sufficient. Minoans reached their peak c1600 BCE. Much of what we know about the Minoan culture is due to the archaeological work of Sir Arthur Evans.

Architecture-primary examples were built at the Temple Complex at Knossos.

• Palace of Knossos (figs.4-4 & 4-5), c1700-1400 BCE
• Queen's Megaron, Palace of Knossos, c1700-1400 BCE
• King's Apartment, Inner Court with peristyle, Palace of Knossos c1700-1400 BCE

Painting-artists worked on a large scale using the fresco technique. Typically, murals were views of nature and/or scenes of human activity and had painted geometric borders.

• Toreador Fresco (Bull Jumping) Palace of Knossos (fig. 4-16), 1450-1400 BCE
• Landscape with Swallows (Spring Fresco) Thera (presently Santorini) (fig. 4-18), c1630-1500 BCE

Sculpture-were primarily small religious subjects made in ivory, wood, precious metals and stone.

• Snake Goddess Palace of Knossos (fig.4-7), c1600 BCE
• Rhyton Palace of Knossos (fig. 4-10), c1500-1450 BCE

Mycenaean Art

The site of the ancient Mycenaean civilization was discovered in the late 19th century by archaeologist Heinrich Schleimann. The people of the Mycenaean culture were influenced by the Minoans. But unlike the peaceful Minoans, the culture of the Mycenaeans was dominated by military encounters and the building of fortifications and strongholds.

Architecture

• Corbeled Gallery Citadel at Tiryns (figs. 4-23 & 4-24), c1400-1200 BCE
• Lion Gate, Mycenae, (fig. 4-20), c1300-1250 BCE
• Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae (figs.4-21 & 4-22), c1300-1250 BCE

AP Art History

INTRODUCTION

"For we are lovers of the beautiful, yet with simplicity, and we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness...We are the school of Greece" Pericles, fifth century BCE

 

• Whereas the Egyptians lived their lives according to their obsession with the afterlife, the Greeks represent the first major civilization that lived their lives based upon the concept of humanism.
• The Greek humanist view was what led them to create a democracy and what encouraged their unparalled contributions to the fields of art, literature, and science.

HISTORY: Two major groups, the Dorians (from mainland Greece) and the Ionians (from the Aegean Island groups), were the earliest people to create strong kinship groups based upon language and common beliefs.Divided geographically, the early Greeks created small, independent city-states. Throught the years, an intense military, political and commercial rivalry will evolve between the city-states.

CHRONOLOGY

• Geometric Period: ca. 900-700 B.C.E.
• Orientalizing Period: ca. 725-600 B.C.E.
• Archaic Period: ca. 625-480 B.C.E.
• Early Classical Period: ca. 480-450 B.C.E.
• High Classical Period: ca. 450-400 B.C.E.
• Late Classical Period: ca. 400-330 B.C.E.
• Hellenistic Period: ca. 330-31 B.C.E.

Geometric Period

 

Vase Painting-Very typical of this period were large funerary vases designed to hold votive offferings. Decoration consisted primarily of abstract forms arranged in registers that surrounded the vase. Artists emphasized flat patterns and outline shapes that represented human forms in various poses of anquish. that repeated themselves around the vase.

• Dipylon Vase Dipylon Master, from Dipylon Cemetary (fig. 5-5), c750 BCE
• Attic Geometric Krater, from Dipylon Cemetary, (fig. 5-2, Gardner's), c740 BCE
• Hero and Centaur, (fig. 5-7), c750 BCE

Orientalizing

Vase Painting-Patterns used to decorate vases were larger and more open than geometric styles. Figures were real and imaginary in animal and human form. This pattern of design reflects a strong influence of motifs from the Near east, Asia Minor, and Egypt.

• Wine Pitcher, from Rhodes (fig. 5-10), c650-625 BCE

Statuary-There are very few examples of statuary from this time period. Lady of Auxerre, is the best example with its triangular flat-topped head with stylized strands of hair, that compliment the triangular pattern used for the facial shape.(Gardner's)

• Lady of Auxerre, c650-625 BCE

The Archaic Period

Architecture-A greater sense of permanency will characterize the architecture of the Archaic period. Temples were no longer built of mud brick, but were constructed of stone and marble. Architects experimented with different elevations of order, the Doric and the Ionic especially. Standard Doric elevation (seen in the Temple of Hera I) included fluted columns that rested directly upon the stylobate, and a three-part entablature.

• Temple of Hera I, Paestum, Italy (fig.5-11), c550 BCE
• Temple of Artemis, Korkyra, (fig. 5-14) c600-580 BCE
• Siphnian Treasury, reconstruction (fig. 5-16), c530-525 BCE

Statuary-With few exceptions, most archaic statuary was usually lifesize or larger, painted, and shared a facial expression known as the "archaic smile."Female statues are identified as kore, and young male statues as kouros.

• Dying Warrior, Temple of Aphaia, Aegina (fig. 5-19), c480 BCE
• Kouros (Standing Youth) (fig. 5-20), c600 BCE
• Moschophorus (Calf Bearer), (fig. 5-25), c560 BCE
• Kroisos, (fig. 5-21), c525 BCE
• Kore, (fig. 5-22), 570-560 BCE
• Kore, from Peplos, (fig. 5-23), c530 BCE
• Kore, from Chios, (fig. 5-24), c520 BCE

Vase Painting-The main area for the production of vases during the Archaic Period was Athens. Artist adopted the Corinthian technique of vase decorating called black-figure.Inaddition red-figure technique was also used as a method of decoration.

 

• Exekias, The Suicide of Ajax, Black-figure amphora, (fig. 5-29), c540 BCE
• Exekias, Ajax and Achilles Playing a Game, Black-figure amphora, c540-530 BCE
• Andokides Painter, Ajax and Achilles Playing a Game, Bilingual amphora, c525-520 BCE

Early Classical Period

In the early fifth century BCE, the Greek city-states united to successfully stop a Persian invasion. However, the final defeat of the Persians did not come unitl after the destruction of many cities, including Athens.

Architecture and Architectural Sculpture-Examples from this period represent a time of transition. Temples become more compact, columns become more widely spaced with a smoother transition from the vertical shaft to the horizontal elements of the architrave. The overall effect is more refined and is best illustrated in the design of Temple of Hera II. Architectural sculpture shares this new refinement. Pediment statuary becomes lifesize and displays a variety of movement and action.

 

• Temple of Hera II, Paestum, c460 BCE
• Apollo with Battling Lapiths and Centaurs, Temple of Zeus, Olympia, (fig. 5-34), c470-456 BCE
• Athena, Herakles, and Atlas, Temple of Zeus, c470-456 BCE

Freestanding Sculpture
Early classical statuary represents a complete break with the rigid, unnatural Egyptian inspired poses used by archaic sculptors in their kouroi. There is a new concern to render the human form in natural poses that illustrate how a human actually stands.Gardner's

 

• Kritios Boy (fig. 5-36), c480 BCE
• Charioteer (fig. 5-37), c470 BCE
• Young Warrior (Riace Warrior), (fig. 5-38), c450-450 BCE

High Classical Period

It was Pericles, who ruled Athens 462-429 BCE, that encouraged Athenians to rebuild the Acropolis that had been destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE. This monumental undertaking was highlighted by the construction of the Parthenon. Completed in 438 BCE, construction was directed by Pheidias, who spared no expense at the project.

• Kallikrates and IktinosThe Parthenon (figs. 5-42 ), c447-438 BCE
• KallikratesTemple of Athena Nike (fig. 5-52), c425 BCE
• MnesiklesPropylaia,(figs.5-49), c437-432 BCE
• MnesiklesErechtheion (figs.5-50), c430's-405 BCE
• MnesiklesPorch of the Maidens (Caryatid Porch), Erechtheion (figs.5-51), c421-405 BCE

Architectural Sculpture

 

• Three Seated Goddesses, East pediment of Parthenon, (fig. 5-44), 438-432 BCE
• Lapith Fighting Centaur, Metope relief, Doric frieze, south end Parthenon, (fig. 5-45), 438-432 BCE
• Horsemen, detail from Procession, Ionic frieze, north side, Parthenon, (fig. 5-47), 438-432 BCE

Statuary
Sculptors from the High classical Period believed that rue beauty was only found in perfect form. Sculptors such as Myron and Polykleitosbelieved that true beauty existed inperfect proportions, in harmonious numerical ratios.Polykleitos wrote about his ideas in his treatise called the Canon.

• Myron Diskobolos, c450 BCE
• Polykleitos Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), (fig. 5-54), c450-440 BCE
• Nike (Victory) adjusting Her Sandal, Temple of Athena Nike, (fig. 5-53), 410-407 BCE

Late Classical Period

For one year after Athens was defeated by Sparta, the Athenian people were subjected to the tyrranical rule of Kritias. In 403 BCE, Athens revolted against Sparta and democracy was restored. Athens never regained her empire status, but the arts did continue to flourish. The artists of the fourth century BCE experimented with new subjects and new artistic styles, that turned away from the rigid conventions of the High Classical period.

Architecture and Architectural Sculpture

• Theodoros of Phokaia Tholos, Sanctuary of Athena, Delphi, (fig. 5-59), c400 BCE
• Polykleitos the Younger Theater, (fig. 5-75), 350 BCE

Sculpture

• Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos, (fig. 5-64), c350 BCE
• Praxiteles, Hermes and Infant Dionysos, (fig. 5-63) 300-250 BCE
• Lysippos, Apoxyomenos (The Scraper), (fig. 5-66) c330 BCE

Hellenistic Period

Architecture

• Altar of Zeus, Pergamon, (fig. 5-80), c166-156 BCE

Sculpture

 

• Epigonos Dying Gaul, (fig 5-92), 230-220 BCE
• Athena Attacking the Giants, Altar of Zeus, (fig. 5-81), c166-156 BCE
• Nike of Samothrace, (fig. 5-82), c190 BCE
• Hagesandros, Polydoros, amd Athanadoros, Laocoon and His Sons (fig. 5-83), early first century AD

 

AP Art History
Etruscan and Roman Art

INTRODUCTION

By the sixth century BCE, a group of people known as the Etruscans controlled a large and powerful empire near the coast of Italy, around what is now Rome. The Etruscans successfully ruled until they were overthrown by the Romans in 281 BCE. Strongly influenced by the Greeks, The Etruscans provided an artistic link between the Greeks and the Romans. The Romans will establish and rule one of the most extensive empires in history. Imposing their culture on all people under their domain, the Romans ruled an empire that stretched from the Euphrates River in the Near East, to North Africa, and to Scotland in Northern Europe.

CHRONOLOGY

• Etruscan Supremacy: 700-509 BCE
• Roman Republican Period: 509-27 BCE
• Early Empire Period: 27 BCE-180 CE
• The High Empire: 180-195 CE
• The Late Empire: 195-400 CE

Etruscan Supremacy

Etruscan Temples
Tombs

Roman Republican Period
Introduction

The period known as the Roman Republic began with the overthrow of the last Etruscan king and lasted until the death of Julius Caesar. Historically, the Republic was a time of expansion that was accomplished through war and alliances. The expansion of the empire brought about social, political, and economic changes that defined the empire for centuries.

Architecture

he growth of Republican architecture corresponded to the expansion of the empire. The style of Republican architecture were influenced by the Greeks, Egyptians, and the builders of the Near East.

 

 

• Sanctuary of Fortuna, Palestrina (fig. 6-14), c100 BCE
• Temple of "Fortuna Virilis (Temple of Portunus), Rome, (fig. 6-16) late second or early first century BCE
• Temple of the "Sibyl (Vesta), Tivoli, early first century BCE

Sculpture

Republican sculpture was characterized by a rise in the number of official and private images. Verism defined as the rendering of accurate and faithful portraits of the individual became very popular.

• Head of Roman Patrician, c75-50 BCE
• Aulus Metellus, (fig. 6-25) late second or early first century BCE
• Ara Pacis, (fig. 6-27), 13-9 BCE
• Imperial Procession,(relief from Ara Pacis), (fig. 6-28) 13-9 BCE
• Allegory (relief rom Ara Pacis), (fig. 6-29), 13-9 BCE
• Augusta of Primaporta, (fig. 6-30), early first century CE
• Livia, (fig 6-31), c20 BCE

The Early Empire Period
Introduction
Tiberius, the stepson of Augustus, began a line of Roman rulers known as the Julio-Claudians. This line of emperors ended with the rule of Nero. A brief period of civil followed the death of Nero but eventually General Vespasian seized control and founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled until 96 AD.
Painting

Wall Painting of the Early Empire-Roman wall paintings were historically and artistically important. The surviving examples are limited in number and are confined to settlements that were buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.

• Intiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus, Villa of the Mysteries, (fig. 6-33), c50 BCE
• Wall Decoration, Villa of the Mysteries, c50 BCE
• Woman with a Veil, Villa of the Mysteries, c50 BCE
• Cityscape, Boscoreale (near Pompeii) (fig.6-35), late first century CE
• Wall Painting, detail from the house of Lucretius Fronto, (fig. 6-45), mid first century CE
• Still Life, detail wall painting from the house of Julia Felix, (fig. 6-46), late first century CE
• Still Life with Peaches, deatil of wall painting from Herculaneum, c70 CE
• Portrait of Husband and Wife, Pompeii, c70 CE
• Hercules and Telephus, Herculaneum, 70 CE
• Ixiom Room, from House of Vetti, c70-79 CE

Architecture and Architectural Sculpture

Architects of the two periods continued to experiment with concrete instead of traditional building materials.

• Colosseum, Rome, (fig. 6-37) c72-80 CE
• Arch of Titus, Rome, (fig.6-40) c81 CE
• Spoils from the Temple of Solomon, detail from the Arch of Titus, Rome, (fig. 6-41) c81 CE
• Triumph of Titus, detail from arch of Titus, Rome, c81 CE

Sculpture

In contrast with the Republican period, portraits of people from all ages were preserved during the Early Empire.

• Young Flavian Woman, (fig. 6-43), c90 CE
• Middle-Aged Flavian Woman, (fig. 6-44), late first century CE

The High Empire Period

The Five Good Emperors-Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines were known as the "Good Emperors." Their reigns were times of peace and prosperity.
Architecture and Architectural Sculpture

Typical works from this time period were designed to celebrate and commemorate the regins of the emperors.

• Column of Trajan, Rome, (fig. 6-51), 106-113 CE
• Romans Crossing the Danube, detail from Column of Trajan, (fig. 6-52), 106-113 CE
• Pantheon, exterior view, Rome, (fig. 6-55), 125-128 CE
• Pantheon, reconstruction drawing, (fig. 6-56), 125-128 CE
• Giovani Panini, Interior of the Pantheon, c1734-35 CE
• Canopus and Sarapeum, Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli, (fig. 6-58) c135 CE

Sculpture

Equestrian statues, such as the one honoring Marcus Aurelius represented a break with the classical tradition.

• Marcus Aurelius, Rome, (fig. 6-67), 161-180 CE
• Commodus as Hercules, (fig. 6-68, 190 CE

Painting

• Battle of Centaurs and Wild Beasts, from Hadrian's Villa (fig. 6-69), 118-128 CE
• Heracleitus, The Unswept Floor, mosaic, Rome, (fig. 6-70), second century CE

The Late Empire Period

The Severans and the Tetrarchy

The death of Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius, marked the end of the Antonine dynasty. The erosion of Roman power became increasingly more evident. Order on the frontier was difficult to maintain. Imperial power was in question. The Severans ruled until the murder of Severan Alexander. Over the next several years, times were chaotic. Finally, in 284 AD, order was restored when Diocletian was proclaimed Emperor by his troops.Diolcletian divided the empire into four regions and created the Tetrarchy (rule by four). Diocletian adopted the title "Augustus of the East".

Architecture

The restoration of stablity was reflected in the construction of monuments dedciated to the accomplishments of the emperors.

• Arch of Constantine

Architectural Sculpture
The colossal head of Emperor Constantine is all that remains of the thirty foot seated statue built in 330 AD. It was placed in the western apse of the Basilica of Constentine. The simplified details of the facial features marks a return to the earlier style of the Archaic period.

• The Tetrarchs, (fig. ), 305 AD
• Constantine the Great, (fig. ), 330 AD.

 AP Art History
Early Christian, Jewish, and Byzantine Art

INTRODUCTION:The Edict of Toleration issued by Constantine the Great in 313 AD provided religious toleration for Christians. In 325 AD Christianity became the official religion of the empire. In 380 AD, Emperor Theodosius I made Christianity the sole religion of the empire. The creation of Constantinople as the capital of the Eastern Empire, not only divided Rome politically, but religiously as well.Soon the Western Empire was recognized as the seat of Roman Catholicism and the Eastern Empire the seat of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Early Christian and Byzantine-According to Jansen's History of Art "Byzantine art designates not only the art of the Eastern Roman Empire but a specific quality of style as well. Early Christian does not designate a specific style, it refers, rather, to any work of art produced by or for Christians during the time prior to the splitting off of the Orthodox Church."
Early Christian Art

Painting-Earliest examples consist of wall paintings found within the catacombs. The paintings conveyed religious messages most common with the core of Christianity, the miracle of the Incarnation and the promise of Salvation.

Architecture-The recognition of Christianity by Constantine resulted in the construction of great churches. The basilica built in Rome over the site of the tomb of St. Peter, became the model for future basilicas. Central plan churches, such as the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, combined many of the elements of the basilica with the elements of the ancient tholos.
Basilicas

A major building program instituted in 333 AD by Constantine was the construction of a basilica over the burial site of St. Peter. The general architectural elements used in the construction of Old St. Peter's Basilica became the standard elements of all future basilicas.
Plan of Old St. Peter's
Central Plan Churches

Introduction-The central plan building was first used by Christians as tombs, baptismal centers, or as shrines to martyrs. The plan was based upon the cruceform or cross shaped design. The intersection of the two arms of the cross was covered by a vaulted dome similar to that used by the ancient tholos. The exteriors were very plain. The emphasis on decoration was saved for the interior, where rich colorful mosaics cover the walls and ceilings.

• Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, (fig. ), Ravenna, c425-26 AD

Mosaics-The large all surfaces on the interior of the newly built churches were left to the artists for decoration. Great pictorial cycles were designed by master craftmen. Brilliantly colored tesserae created mosaics that advertised the new religion as well instructed the worshippers in the basic doctrines of the faith.

• Good Shephard, lunette over west entrance, Galla Placidia
• Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence, lunette over eastern bay, Galla Placidia
• Saint Apollinaris, First Bishop of Ravenna, apse of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo

Byzantine Art

Introduction-There were no clear cut lines betwen Early Christian and early Byzantine art until the 5th century. By then, certain stylistic differences were evident. True Byzantine art stylistically began 500 AD and lasted until 730 AD. It included the reign of Justinian to the Iconoclasm

Architecture-The most important structure from the Golden Age of Byzantine Art was the construction of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople by Emperor Justinian. Justinian hired two well known architects for the project, Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorius of Miletus. In addition to Hagia Sopia, the construction of San Vitale and Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, in Ravenna, Italy illustrate the resurrection of the Western Empire under Justinian's rule.

• Hagia Sophia, (fig. ), Instanbul, 532-537 AD
• plan of Hagia Sophia, (fig. ), Instanbul, 532-537 AD
• San Vitale, (fig. ), in Classe, Ravenna, 526-547 AD
• Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, (Fig. ), Ravenna, 533-549 AD

Mosaics

• Saint Apollinaris, First Bishop of Ravenna, apse of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo
• The Second Coming (Christ Between Angels and Saints), apse of San Vitale
• Justinian and His Attendants, north wall of apse, San Vitale
• Theodora and Her Attendants, south wall of apse, San Vitale

Icons and Manuscript Illumination

• Virgin and Child With Saints, c75-50 BCE
• Vladimir Madonna, (fig. 6-25) late second or early first century BCE
• Old Testament Trinity, (fig. 6-27), 13-9 BCE
• The Crucifixion, (fig. 6-28) 13-9 BCE
• The Ascension, (fig. 6-29), 13-9 BCE

AP Art History
Early Medieval Art

INTRODUCTION:There were two important events that led to the development of Medieval Europe. One was the Christianization of the Germanic tribes and the second was the unification of Western Europe by Charlemagne.

British and Irish Style

Introduction-The original settlers of the region, the Celts found themselves being ruled by the Romans from c55 BC until the region was finally abandoned by Rome in 406 AD. Subsequently, the area was taken over by the Jutes, Angles, and the Saxons. The resulting Anglo-Saxon was primarily pagan, but gradually the people were Christianized, especially in Ireland.

Manuscript Illumination

• Gospel Book of Durrow, page with lion from Book of Mark, (fig. ), c675 AD
• Chi Rho Iota, Book of Matthew, Book of Kells, late 8th early 9th century AD

Carolingian Period

Introduction-Charlemagne devoted his energies to conquest. Through his efforts much of western Europe was united under the Christian religion. Charlemagne's reign is often referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance.

Architecture-Charlemagne encouraged the revival of classical forms in many of the building projects that he sponsored.

• Abbey Church of Saint Riquier
• Palace Chapel at Aachen

Manuscript Illumination-Charlemagne believed that education was vital to the success of his empire. He continually promoted learning especially among the clergy. During his reign, Charlemagne brought many Early Christian manuscripts from Rome to be copied by the monks at the Abbey Church of Saint Riquier.

• Mark the Evangelist, Book of Mark, from the Godeseaic Evangelistary, 781-83 AD
• St. Matthew the Evangelist, Book of Matthew, Ebbo Gospels, c816-40 AD

The Ottonian Period

Introduction-Charlemagne's empire only survived for thirty years after his death. After the empire;s collapse, a series of invasion further weakened the continent. Finally in the mid-10th century, a new line of saxon kings gained control of the eastern portion of the old empire. The time period is historically referred to as the Ottonian Period, after three of the most important rulers. Otto I, Otto II and Otto III.

Architecture and Sculpture

• Abbey Church of Saint Michael, (fig. ), Hildesheim, Germany, c1001-1031 AD
• Bishop Bernward, The Temptation, from the bronze doors from the Abbey Church of Saint Michael
• Bishop Bernward, The The crucifixion, from the bronze doors from the Abbey Church of Saint Michael

Manuscript Illumination

• The Annunciation of the Shephards, (fig. ), from the Lectionary of Henry II
• Otto III Enthroned, from the Luther Gospels
• Otto III Entroned Receiving Homage of the Four Parts of the World, from the Gospel Books of Otto III

AP Art History
Romanesque Art

INTRODUCTION:The term Romanesque refers to a style that was "in the Roman manner." The architecture of the 11th and 12th century copied the same solid masaonry walls, rounded arches, and the masonry vaults used by Roman.
France and Northern Spain

Introduction-The uniqueness of Romanesque churches was the result of a synthesis of builders working with individual sites, the purpose of the construction, the building materials, the labor force the was used, the builders' abilities and knowledge, and the desires of the project patrons.

Architecture-The basic for was basilica plan with key variations: masonry vaulting, the addition of ribs, masonry buttresses, and the intruduction of the ambulatory.

• Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy, Conques, France, (fig. 15-2 & 15-3 ), mid 11th-12th century AD
• Abbey Church of Cluny, Burgundy, France, 1088-1130 AD
• Abbey Church of Notre-Dame, Fontenay, France, 1139-47 AD

Architectural Sculpture-Carved portal art was a significant change in Romanesque art. The earliest images, represent a combination of biblical narratives, folklore, history, and Christian symbolism. By the end of the period, the most common themes were scenes of Christ in Majesty and the Last Judgment.

• South Portal and Porch, Priory Church of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, Toulouse, France. c.1115-30
• West portal, Cathedral of Saint-Lazare, Autun. c.1120-35/40

Wall Painting-It was during the Romanesque period, that church mosaics were replaced by wall paintings.

• Abbey Church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, Poitou, France. c.1100
• Christ in Majesty, apse painting from Church of San Clemente, Spain. c.1123

Books-The number of books that were produced increased dramatically between the 11th and 12th centuries. The majority were produced in monastic scriptoriums and varied in their size and embellishment. The lectionary became one of the most popular books.
England and Northern France

Architecture-The British used masonry architecture in new and innovative forms. They experimented with stone vaulting as well as stone walls to surround the church complexes.

• Castle-monastery-cathedral complex, Durham, England. c.1075-1100's
• Church of Saint-Etienne, Normandy, France. Begun 1064.

Bayeux Tapestry-The Bayeux Tapestry is a wall hanging that depicts the events of the Norman Conquest of 1066. The tapestry was commissioned by Bishop Odo, the half brother of William the Conqueror. The work represents a major political document and historical record.

• Bishop Odo Blessing The Feast, section 47-48, Bayeux Tapestry, 1066-82
• Messengers Signal the Appearance of a Comet, panel 32, section 20, Bayeux Tapestry, 1066-82

The Holy Roman Empire, Ancient Rome and Romanesque Italy

Introduction-Though politically divided, Italy experienced economic growth during the 11th century. Port cities such as Pisa, Genoa, and Venice developed a thriving Mediterranean trade. In 1063, Pisa was victorious over the Muslims and began the construction of a cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

• Church of Sant'Ambrogia, Milan, Italy. begun 1080
• Cathedral Complex, Pisa, Tuscany, Italy. begun 1063
• Church of San Clemente, Rome. c.1120-30

AP Art History

EARLY RENAISSANCE ART IN EUROPE

Early Renaissance Art Outside of Italy

Introduction-Early Renaissance art in northern Europe remained essentially Gothic primariy due to the fact that the artists of the north were not surrounded by classical antiquity. In the north, the International Style of the late 14th century will give way to powerful realism.

• Northern painters evolved from manuscript illuminators
• The social hierarchy remained unchanged with nobles and clergy dominating a rapidly growing middle class.
• Some artists experimented with oils and glazes that allowed for the creation of richer colors.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NORTHERN PAINTING

• Deep, intense tonality
• Newer colors that seemed to glow from within
• hard, enamel-like surfaces
• Hard edged, sparkling clarity of detail-artists were intent on rendering the appearance rather than the structure behind the appearance
• French Courtly Style

PAINTING-The French love for personal and intimate works had set the tone for the International Gothic style. The openness of Gothis architecture provided few continuous wall spaces for frescos. French artists of the 15th century had a long tradition of using deep colors, worked into tiny intricate patterns.

CHARACTERISTICS-typically 15th century paintings were of charming subjects, in graceful poses and sweet facial expressions. The artists showed a concern for naturalistic detail. They also used bright, pastel colors with touches of gold.

• Pucelle, Jean-David Before Saul, page from the Belleville Breviary, c1325
• Limbourg Brothers-Tres Riches Heures, 1413-16
• Broederlam, Melchior-Annunciation and Visitation/Presentation and Flight into Egypt, Chartreuse de Champmol, 1394-99.

SCULPTURE-The Carthusian monastery founded by Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, was a lavish project intended to house the family tombs.

• Sluter, ClausWell of Moses, Chartreuse de Champmol, 1395-1406
• Flemish Art (p.619-34)

The people of Flanders (modern day Belgium) enjoyed great wealth and prestige due to an extensive wool trade and banking. The financial center of Bruges was also the political capital for the Duke of Burgundy.

PAINTING-The roots of Flemish painting can be traced to full page manuscript illuminations created at the end of the 14th century. There were three leading Flemish painters: Robert Campin, Jan van Eyck, and Rogier van der Weyden. These three artists, along with a group of second generation panel painters, such as Petrus Christus, Dirck Bouts, and Hans Memling, attracted many followers Campin, Robert (Master of Flemalle), Virgin and Child Before a Firescreen, c1428

• Campin, Robert (Master of Flemalle), Merode Altarpiece, (fig.17-5), c1425-28
• van eyck, Jan, Ghent Altarpiece, (fig.17-7 & 17-8), 1432
• van eyck, Jan, Arnolfini Wedding, (fig.17-10), 1434
• van der Weyden, Rogier,Escorial Deposition, (fig. 17-110. c1435
• van der Weyden,Portrait of a Lady, (fig.17-13), c1460
• Memling, Hans, Portinari Altarpiece, (fig. 17-18), c1474-76

Early Renaissance Art in Florence

Introduction-Surrounded by classical antiguity, the artists of Florence had much to inspire them. The powerful Medici family had a tremendous influence on art produced in Florence during the first half of the 15th century, primarily in the role of patron.
Architecture

Florentine architecture of the early 15th century was dominated by the completion of the great cathedral that had been started over one hundred years earlier.

• Brunelleschi, Flippo, Dome of Florence Cathedral, (fig.17-30, 31, & 32), 1417-36
• di Bartolommeo, Michelozzo, Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, (fig.17-34), Begun 1444
• Alberti, Leon Battista, Palazzo Rucellai, (fig.17-35), 1455-70

Sculpture

• di Banco, Nanni
• Ghiberti, Lorenzo
• Donatello
• della Robbia, Luca

Painting

Introduction-

• Gentile de Fabriano, Adoration of the Magi, (fig.17-45), 1423
• Masaccio, Trinity with the Virgin, Saint John the Evangelist, and Donors, (fig.17-45), c1425
• Masaccio, Tribute Money
• Fra Angelico, Annunciation
• Fra Filippo Lippi, Virgin and Child
• Andrea del Castagno, Last Supper
• Paolo Uccello, Battle of San Romano
• Domenico del Ghirlandaio, A man and His Grandchild
• Sandro Botticelli, Birth of Venus
• Sandro Botticelli, Primavera (Spring)

Early Renaissance Art Outside of Florence

Introduction

Architecture

• Leon Battista Alberti, Church of Sant'Andrea

Sculpture

• Donatello
• Andrea del Verrocchio

Painting

• Piero della Francesca
• Andrea Mantegna
• Pietro Perugino
• Gentile Bellini
• Giovanni Bellini

AP Art History
Baroque Art * Outline

BAROQUE: The term Baroque seems to have begun during the eighteenth century from a Portugeseword barroco meaning "irregular pearl". After the perfectionism of the Renaissance, the style of the Baroque did appear to be something out of the ordinary.

STYLISTIC FEATURES

• Emotionalism
• Naturalism
• Classicism
• Tenebrism

Italian Baroque

ARCHITECTURE-The major architectural projects of the Italian Baroque were due to the patronage of the Catholic Church and wealthy nobles.

• Vatican, Rome-Saint Peter's Basilica, 1607-15
• Vatican, Rome-Saint Peter's Square, c1656-57

SCULPTURE-The most noted of Italian Baroque sculptors was Gianlorenzo Bernini.

• Saint Teresa of Avila in Ecstasy, Cornaro Chapel, 1645-52

PAINTING-One of the most powerful of the Italian Baroque painters was Michelangelo Merisi, better known as Caravaggio.

• Caravaggio, Calling of Saint Matthew, oil on canvas, c1599-1602
• Caravaggio, Entombment, oil on canvas, c1603
• Artemisia Gentileschi, La Pittura, oil on canvas, 1630

French Baroque

The art of the French Baroque period corresponds with the reign of the legendary "Sun King" Louis XIV.

ARCHITECTURE-The two premier example of French Baroque architecture are The Louvre and the Palace of Versailles.

• Louis Le Vau, Claude Perrault, and Charles Le Brun, Palais du Louvre, Paris, 1667-70
• Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart, Palais de Versailles, Versailles, France, 1668-85

PAINTING-The style of Caravaggio was studied and copied by many French painters. Besides Caravaggiam, Baraoque classicism was also very popular

• Claude Lorrain, Landscape with Merchants, oil on canvas, c1630
• Nicolas Poussin, Landscape with Saint John, oil on canvas, 1640
• George de La Tour, The Repentant Magdalen, oil on canvas, c1640

Spanish Baroque

PAINTING-The influence of Holland and Flanders will affect not only the political and economicstablity if Spain but will greatly influence the style of Spanish Baroque painters.

• Jusepe de Ribera, Boy with Clubfoot, oil on canvas, 1642/52
• Diego Velazquez, Las Meninas, oil on canvas, 1656

Flemish Baroque

PAINTING-Flanders control by Spain will be evidenced in the religious works of Peter Paul Rubens. More domestic works were painted by Jan Bruegal and Anthony Van Dyck.

• Jusepe de Ribera, Boy with Clubfoot, oil on canvas, 1642/52
• Diego Velazquez, Las Meninas, oil on canvas, 1656
• Jusepe de Ribera, Boy with Clubfoot, oil on canvas, 1642/52
• Diego Velazquez, Las Meninas, oil on canvas, 1656

Dutch Baroque

Holland's long struggle for independence from Spain ended in 1648. As a nation Holland flourished not only economically but also artistically. The three giants of the Dutch Baroque were Rembrandt, Vermeer, and Hals.

PAINTING-Four categories of painting will emerge during the Dutch Baroque: landscape, still-life, genre and portraiture.