1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Changes in Technology
   1. Navigational Changes
      1. Sternpost rudder – improved steering - Invented in China – Han Dynasty
      2. Lateen sails – sail in any direction regardless of wind
      3. Astrolabe – measured distance of sun/stars above horizon – latitude
      4. Magnetic Compass – Chinese – direction without sight of land
      5. Three-Masted Caravels – larger sails, large cargo rooms w/ more provisions
2. Global Interactions
   1. European colonization of Americas
      1. Why successful?
         1. Disease
            1. Indigenous people had no resistance – developed independently
         2. Neighboring states hated Aztecs, more than happy to help
         3. Fear of unknown – metal, horseback – seen as God
         4. Motivation – acquire gold and spices
         5. Superior weapons
         6. Individual assistance
            1. Malince (Dona Marina) acted as interpreter – Spanish>Aztec
      2. Early colonization
         1. Cortes – 1519 – Aztecs
            1. Tenochititlan – Mexico City – New Spain
            2. Conquistadors controlled Western USA – California, Arizona, etc…
         2. Pizarro – 1531 – Incas
         3. Goals
            1. Boost home countries’ power and wealth
            2. Exploitation and exploration of raw materials
            3. Spread of Roman Catholicism
            4. Labor system
            5. Attempted to use natives, but failed
               1. Resorted to importing labor from Africa
      3. Differences in empire expansion from earlier empires
         1. Existing populations wiped out not allowed to remain intact
         2. Huge numbers of people moved in
         3. Even Mongols didn’t totally replace population
         4. Previous empires merged with, converted, or were converted by existing population
         5. Americas – Europeans created new continent in own image – two Europes essenentially
      4. Labor/Economic System
         1. Hierarchical system
            1. Peninsulares – Spanish officials
            2. Creoles – born in colonies to Spanish parents
               1. Educated, wealthy
               2. Looked down upon by Spanish aristocracy
               3. Became leaders of resistance movements later
            3. Mestizos – European and Native American ancestry
            4. Mulattos – European and African ancestry
            5. Native Americans – little to no freedom
               1. Worked on estates, in mines
         2. Encomienda System – American Feudalism
            1. Peninsulares get land and # of slaves/native laborers
               1. In exchange, must protect them and convert them
         3. Attempts at reform
            1. Treatment horrific – Christian missionaries appealed for reform
            2. Reduced strain on natives by bringing in Africans
            3. Replaced one oppressed group with another
            4. Both Africans and Natives ended up at bottom of social hierarchy
      5. Difference methods of Colonization
         1. Spanish/Portuguese
            1. Resource extraction #1 priority
            2. Treatment of Native Americans harsh
               1. Until recently known as cruelest of colonizers
               2. Indians first as slaves, then exploited for cheap labor
               3. Kept near bottom of Latin American social scale
            3. Importation of African slaves massive
               1. More brought to Latin America/Caribbean than United States
                  1. Primarily brought over males
                  2. #s only kept up through importation, not reproduction
            4. Missionaries/priests – conversion to Catholicism a priority
            5. Settled presence of Spanish/Portuguese (large cities) created permanent colonies
         2. French
            1. Focused on economic exploitation
            2. Focused on fur trade
            3. Made little effort to create long-term settlements
               1. Only 11,000 settlers came from 1608-1763
               2. Attacks from British made it difficult to have long-term settlemensts
            4. Hunters, trappers, soldiers – remarkably adept at adapting selves to environment
               1. Knew woods, rivers of North America well
               2. Learned language of Native Americans – made alliances – Huron
         3. English
            1. Most encouraged long-term settlement
               1. viable, long-lasting colonies desirable
               2. Grew rapidly – men, women and children stayed
               3. Cities, communities grew
                  1. Strong systems of local government
            2. Colonists went to escape religious persecution
            3. Some colonists were convicts
            4. Greatest number indentured servants
               1. Worked for masters in exchange for payment of voyage over
            5. Used African slaves
               1. Tobacco/cotton growing southern settlements
            6. Initially, relationship with Indians relatively peaceful
               1. Relationship soured during French/Indian Wars
               2. Turned antagonistic violent after
                  1. But…violence always existed before too
   2. Columbian Exchange – most rapid and profound ecological transformations in world history
      1. New foods, animals, resources led to massive changes for both regions
      2. From Europe/Africa
         1. horses, pigs, goats, chili peppers, sugar cane, sheep
            1. Increased milk and meat supply in Americas
            2. Horse Provided labor and transport – horse
               1. Changed nature of Indians on the Plains
         2. Food – for the most part Americas uninterested in food crops
            1. wheat, olive trees, grapevines, coffee
            2. Coffee – grew well in Americas
         3. Christianity
         4. From Africa – food, cultural practices, religious beliefs
      3. From Americas
         1. Food
            1. Types
               1. squash, beans, corn, potatoes, cacoa (aka chocoloate)
               2. Maize and sweet potatoes to China and parts of Africa
               3. White potatoes to Europe
               4. Manioc to Africa
               5. Sugar cane cultivation transferred to Brazil/Caribbean
            2. Impact
               1. Boost population growth
         2. Dramatically shifted diet – Europe now getting different parts of food pyramid
            1. Vitamin rich tomatoes
            2. Sugar as luxury good
         3. Excellent source of cotton
      4. Diseases
         1. Mostly European diseases that killed Americans
            1. smallpox and measles
         2. Only disease thought to be brought back from natives is syphilis (not proven)
      5. Weapons
      6. People
         1. Forced – coercive – slavery, convicts
         2. By choice – colonists, religious persecution, exploration, indentured servitude
         3. DNA from different regions now mixed
      7. Altered biological and dietary realities for tens of millions of people
   3. European encounter with Americas – totally changed Americas
      1. Greater cultural interaction
      2. Movement of Europeans and Africans – forever altered North/South American ethnicity, religion, language, art, and music
   4. Triangular Trade Route
      1. Slaves from Africa on Middle Passage
         1. Before stolen and then taken to slave factories
         2. 13 > 20% died in route
            1. death from suicide, illness, thrown overboard for lack of supplies
         3. Only 5% went to N. America, most to Caribbean and South America
         4. Most N. American slaves first had spent some time in the West Indies
      2. Rum, sugar to Europe
      3. Manufactured goods – guns - to Africa

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Changes in Trade
   1. European Exploration
      1. Before late 15th century
         1. Trade restricted to land travel
         2. Ships used on Mediterranean and Indian Ocean
            1. But…linked to land routes
      2. Causes of exploration – interrelated factors converging on one continent at the same time
         1. Success of Hanseatic League
         2. Crusades spawned new, efficient trade routes
         3. Apply new technologies
            1. Sternpost rudder – improved steering - Invented in China – Han Dynasty
            2. Lateen sails – sail in any direction regardless of wind
            3. Astrolabe – measured distance of sun/stars above horizon – latitude
            4. Magnetic Compass – Chinese – direction without sight of land
               1. Lodestone from Chinese – magnetic – always points north
            5. Three-Masted Caravels – larger sails, large cargo rooms w/ more provisions
               1. Large ships can crest large waves without capsizing
            6. Better knowledge of stars
               1. Gained from Arabs
            7. Sextant – able to journey further without getting lost
            8. Gunpowder – 1500s and 1600s – huge gunships
               1. Sailors equipped with muskets, pistols, small artillery
               2. Gunpowder weapons at sea
               3. Explorers/conquerors could use against less technologically advanced nations
         4. Economic goals
            1. Fiercely competitive about trade routes
            2. Newly wealthy
            3. Access to luxury goods
               1. Silk, metal goods, spices, fruit, jewels, precious metals
            4. Need a direct route
               1. Tired of Middle East being middlemen
               2. Gain access, increase profits
         5. Political goals
            1. Increasingly organized under strong leaders
         6. New ideology
            1. Renaissance thinking looked externally not internally
            2. Renaissance thinking led to belief that man could affect destiny
         7. European visitors to Mongol court learned of Asian technology
            1. printing press
            2. gunpowder
            3. magnetic compass
         8. Marco Polo stories
         9. Rise of nation-states
            1. encouraged economic development
            2. created rivalry between nations for new territories and new wealth
         10. Renaissance ideals
             1. Sense of curiosity and adventure
         11. precedent of Italian merchants making money – Venice – want to get a piece of the action
      3. Early Exploring Nations – Iberian wave
         1. Why Portugal?
            1. Location
               1. Coast of Africa – strategic
               2. On Europe’s Atlantic frontier
            2. Trade relations with Muslim nations
            3. Royal family supported exploration
               1. Prince Henry the Navigator
                  1. Created maritime center/navigation school at port of Sagres
                  2. He and princes sent out voyage after voyage
            4. Maritime experience
               1. Mediterranean trade
               2. Long series of naval wars with Ottoman Turks
            5. Who? Famous Explorers
               1. Dias – Cape of Good Hope 1488
               2. Vasco de Gama – India, E. Africa 1497
                  1. Returns in 1499 filled with cargo
                     1. Returned 6000% of original investment
                        1. Hmmmm…guess what happens next?
               3. Ferdinand Magellan – Portuguese but traveling from Spain
                  1. Inspired by Vasco de Balboa – saw Panama canal
                     1. First European to see Pacific Ocean from new world
                  2. Dies in Philippines
                  3. His ships return to Europe in 1522 – first circumnavigation
            6. Strategy
               1. Explore Africa Coast – around and East
               2. Claimed several Atlantic island groups – Madeiras and Azores
            7. Colonization
               1. Far East and Southeast Asia – too strong/advanced to conquer
                  1. Settled for trading ports – Goa, Malacca, Sri Lanka
         2. Spain – Head west
            1. Distracted/delayed by Reconquista
               1. War against the Moors
               2. Not as quick as Portuguese
                  1. Would have to find option B, Portuguese already have Africa
            2. Columbus’s voyage
               1. Financed by Ferdinand and Isabella
               2. Earth a sphere, but size estimates incorrect
                  1. Columbus’s claims surprising not that it’s round – accepted idea
                     1. Proximity surprising
               3. 1492 – Cuba, W. Indies
                  1. Changed forever the history of the globe
               4. Mistaken all his life that he had found Indies – “Indians”
                  1. Portuguese/Spanish realized it was somewhere different
                     1. Amerigo Vespucci – mapped New World
            3. Colonization
               1. Started in Caribbean
                  1. Island bases on Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola (DR/Haiti)
         3. Treaty of Tordesillas – line of demarcation – Brazil vs. Rest
            1. W. side’s size not clear
            2. 1493, 1494 Pope draws line
      4. Northern Exploring Nations – Northern Wave
         1. Background
            1. Spanish/Portuguese jealously guarded geographic knowledge/navigational techniques
               1. Wanted to lock northern Europe out of Atlantic exploration
               2. What was at stake?
                  1. Military power
                  2. Immense wealth
                  3. Religious rivalry
            2. In 1500s, N. Europe only really can explore N. Atlantic coast of N. America
               1. Considered useless to Spain/Portugal
               2. Hoping to find a “Northwest Passage” to China/India through Arctic
            3. By middle 16th century, 17th century – gained knowledge from Spanish/Portuguese
               1. Stole information
               2. Shadowed ships
               3. Gained enough independent knowledge
            4. Led to conflict wherever they went
               1. Fighting for old claims meant wars on water and on land
         2. England
            1. 1500s – English fought series of naval wars with Spain
               1. All over the world
               2. Goals
                  1. harass Spanish colonies
                  2. capture Spanish treasure ships returning from New World
               3. Gained navigational/geographic knowledge from these wars
                  1. In process of fighting Spanish, Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates
            2. 1600s – English establish colonies
               1. Failed early colonies in N. America – Roanoke most famous
               2. Eventually Plymouth Rock (escaping Puritans) and Jamestown – Virginia
            3. British East India Company – 1600
               1. Manage economic/military relations
            4. Eventually landed and explored Asia – took Asian port in Malacca
            5. Motivations
               1. Gain military strength
               2. Gain wealth
               3. Difference
                  1. Eager to turn colonies into permanent settlements
               4. Exploitation of natural resources the norm
               5. Brought slaves to the New World
         3. France
            1. Surveyed Atlantic coast near Canada
            2. Colonized Canada
               1. Main reason – rich supply of animal furs
            3. Later explored Misissippi, Great Lakes and major rivers
               1. 1600>1700 took over Mississippi Basin area
         4. Netherlands – aka the Dutch
            1. At first, closely tied to War of Independence against Spain
               1. Strategy – attack Spanish at sea – disrupt connections to colonies
               2. Later did same to the Portuguese
                  1. Malacca, Sri Lanka, Spice Islands
            2. Dutch East India Company
            3. Invaded Indonesia – maintain colonial presence for hundreds of years
               1. Ran pepper and spice plantations
               2. Established Batavia 1619 > later became Jakarta
            4. N. America
               1. Henry Hudson – explore bay
               2. Purchased Manhattan – New Amsterdam – 1624
                  1. English took from Dutch in mid 1600s
               3. Briefly held colony in Brazil
            5. Africa – Cape Colony – Southern tip
               1. Supply station for ships sailing to Indonesia
         5. Effects
            1. created colonies
            2. conquering new lands
            3. led to wars
            4. led to nationalism
            5. legitimacy of absolute monarchy
         6. Why Northern colonies?
            1. Risky, expensive – needed backing of strong/wealthy states
            2. Merchants needed protection – need strong navies
      5. Effects of European colonization
         1. emergence of truly global economic system
         2. worldwide system of military competition among European powers for global dominance
            1. Some European wars that took place on other continents – first world wars
      6. Themes of European exploration
         1. Nations of Europe tried to establish control over territories they encountered
            1. Conquered and colonized
            2. Forced open markets
         2. Legacy – Positive for Europe
            1. Nations of Europe unprecedented amount of geographical, navigational, scientific knowledge
            2. Europe became extremely rich and powerful
            3. No longer the smallest/weakest civilization
         3. Legacy – Moral and ethical price
            1. Connection to war, greed, prejudice, religious intolerance, slavery
            2. Parts of the world remained under European control for hundreds of years
            3. Tensions between nations still have impact on international relations
            4. Environments, populations, economies, political systems altered dramatically
      7. World would never be the same
         1. Indian Ocean and Silk Road had connected before, but restricted from open seas
      8. Patterns of world trade
         1. Europeans established ports in East Asia, Southeast Asia, India, and west coast Africa
         2. involvement in international trade positively affected local and regional economies
         3. where direct trade not possible, Europeans negotiated special economic rights
            1. Russia – factors establish agencies in Moscow/St. Petersburg
            2. Ottoman Empire – Western European traders formed colonies with Constantinople
               1. Granted special commercial considerations
      9. Regions outside the world trade system
         1. China relied primarily on regional trade
            1. Most of economic activity through the port of Macao
            2. Disinterest in European products
            3. Trade imbalance – Europeans paid for Chinese products with silver
               1. England/Netherlands eventually developed own porcelain
         2. Tokugawa Japan prohibited foreign trade
            1. Except for limited commercial activity with the Dutch – Nagasaki
         3. Russia traded primarily with the nomads of central Asia
            1. 18th century began trading grain with the West
         4. Ottomans dismissed the impact of European technology
            1. showed little enthusiasm for trade with the West
         5. Mughal India encouraged trade with the West
            1. More preoccupied with imperial expansion
         6. Internal Africa – Europeans afraid to enter
            1. Risk of contracting malaria
            2. Lack of navigable rivers
   2. Commercial Revolution
      1. New Financing
         1. Joint Stock Company
            1. Pool the resources of many merchants
            2. Reducing the costs and risks of colonization
            3. Investors buy shares/stocks in company
            4. Each investor receives profit if company makes money
               1. Potential for huge profits
                  1. Piracy rampant
                  2. Huge cargoes on ships
         2. Substantial middle class of merchants
            1. attracted more investors
            2. beginnings of modern stock market
      2. Changing views
         1. Church revised ban on standard business practices
            1. lending money – usury
            2. charging interest on loans
         2. Monarchies granted trade monopolies to trade routes
            1. These companies would essentially run the nation they traded from
               1. Dutch East India Company – Spice Islands – Indonesia
               2. British East India Company – parts of India
               3. Moscovy Company – England – Russia
            2. Fostered the growth of capitalism
         3. Mercantilism
            1. Why?
               1. country actively sought trade
               2. don’t import more than export
                  1. trade deficit implied weakness in own country
            2. Country’s surplus had to be met by another’s deficit
               1. Pushed for colonization
               2. All resources to mother country
               3. Colonies must buy from mother country only
               4. Must ship using mother country’s sailors/ships
            3. Protected domestic industry
               1. Huge tariffs on imports
               2. Reduced/banned tariffs on trade within country
            4. Colonies annoyed
               1. Resources shipped to Europe
               2. Not free to buy cheapest/best products from overseas
               3. Added taxes create greater resentment
         4. Social diversification
            1. Growing importance of nonagricultural ways to earn money
            2. Bourgeoisie – middle class
               1. banking
               2. commerce
               3. trade
               4. shopkeeping
               5. artisanry
               6. craftsmanship
            3. small middle class to begin with, but grew in size and importance
         5. Wealth now based on industries around money, not merely land
         6. Extraction of precious metals – especially silver
            1. affected economies around the world
            2. glut of precious metals
            3. severe inflation
         7. Birth and growth of Atlantic slave trade
            1. 1400-1800 12 million Africans
      3. Chartered companies – companies allowed to exist by Charter from the crown
         1. Independent traders looking for profit from business
      4. State banks
         1. Large banks chartered by monarchy
            1. Facilitated lending and managing of kingdom’s economy
            2. Lent money to the government
            3. lent money and issued bank notes – redeemable for coin (gold/silver)

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Coercive Labor Systems – slavery vs. other coercive labor system
   1. Slavery
      1. Justifications for slavery
         1. English – partially racism of Africans
         2. Prisoners captured in battle
            1. Defeated Russians, Slavs, Germans, Poles sent to Istanbul
            2. Mamluks – Turkish/Mongol slave soldiers that fought for Egypt
      2. External Slave Trade
         1. Began around 1100s when Africans supplied captives to Arab merchants
         2. Portuguese bought for European market
            1. Before in East Africa, trade relatively small
            2. When Portuguese left in 1700s, trading cities of East Coast took over
               1. Swahili cities provided slaves to plantation islands off
               2. Africa
                  1. Also to Arabian Peninsula
         3. Origins of slavery in Americas
            1. Spanish in sugar islands of Caribbean
               1. Replaced Native Americans
            2. 1619 Dutch ship at Jamestown dropped off slaves
               1. Initially treated like indentured servants, not slaves
               2. But…when large numbers needed for tobacco farming, policy changed
            3. 1640 – Africans went from indentured servants to slaves for life – “durante vita”
            4. Northern colonies did not keep slaves in mass numbers
               1. lacked farms that had large-scale labor intensive crops
                  1. Climate/terrain unsuitable
            5. English institutionalized slavery
               1. needed cheap, abundant labor
               2. viewed Africans with language/culture as less than human
               3. Native Americans not useful
                  1. runaways, disease, easily hide in forest
               4. Indentured servitude
                  1. runways can blend in
                  2. only have labor for specific time
               5. Supply seemed limitless
                  1. W. Africa
                  2. Natural increase - birth
      3. Largest system of slavery – came mostly from West Africa
         1. Plantations of the Caribbean
         2. Southern British Colonies
            1. tobacco, rice, indigo
         3. Brazil
      4. Plantation system
         1. Required cheap, abundant labor
            1. Sub-Saharan Africa filled need
      5. Legal rights
         1. No legal rights
         2. slave marriages not recognized
         3. slaves could not own property
         4. little protection from cruel owner
         5. could be sold away from families
         6. illegal to teach slave to read or write
      6. Consequences of slavery
         1. Africa
            1. depopulated – captured youngest and healthiest
            2. randomness of slave raids – cross-section of society taken
               1. farmer, leaders, craftworker, mother,
            3. Arts and technology suffered – could make money from slave trade
            4. Sudanic empires lost importance – decline in interior empires
               1. Focus of power shifted to coast
            5. Desire for more wealth, power, guns increased cycle
            6. Africans seen as inferior – helped with justification
               1. Affected race relations to this day
   2. Peonage
      1. Debtor provides service until debt is paid off
      2. Debt bondage basis of tenant farming and sharecropping in US after Civil War
         1. Slaves essentially tied to land
      3. Prevalent in Latin America and still exists today
   3. Serfdom

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Cultural and Intellectual Developments
   1. Cultural/Intellectual thought before 1450
      1. Life before
         1. Dominated by Christianity for 1000 years
         2. Feudal system dominated political/social structure for 500 years
            1. Dominated by concern for local issues
               1. salvation
               2. territorial disputes
               3. Black Death
               4. lack of education outside monasteries
               5. small-scale trade
         3. Greece/Rome essentially forgotten
      2. What influenced shift
         1. Crusades exposed Christians to advanced Islamic Civilization
         2. Countries unified under centralized world
         3. Increased trade fueled contacts with other worlds
         4. Universities became centers of learning
         5. Scholasticism – exposed to rest of world and Europe’s past
         6. Byzantine and Islamic empires preserved the past
            1. added to knowledge of math and science
      3. Four major movements – Renaissance, Protestant Reformation, Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment
      4. Shift in thought
         1. No longer backward, isolated, self-involved region on edge of major civilizations
         2. the dominant civilization in the world
         3. shift in exploration and expansion caused and caused by shifts in thought
         4. Not quick, broad or in equal proportions
            1. long time to penetrate into all circles
            2. people with power jealously guarded it
            3. peasant class didn’t participate
               1. not educated
               2. not in position to learn about
   2. Renaissance
      1. Why the Renaissance?
         1. Black Death subsides – populations increase
         2. People move to cities
         3. Demand for products
         4. Middle Class emerges – bankers, merchants, traders
         5. Huge influx of money
         6. Interactions with Muslim world
            1. preservation of Greco-Roman learning by Muslims occupying Spain
         7. Weakening Byzantine Empire
            1. Allowed for more interactions between Muslim/European traders
         8. Northern Italian city-states getting rich
            1. wealthy from supplying goods to Crusaders
            2. transporting goods to Crusaders
            3. Byzantines no longer dominating trade
            4. Italy a patchwork of feudal domains
         9. Scholars uncovering long-forgotten Roman and Greek written works
         10. Location on site of former ruins - Italy
      2. Humanism – focus on human endeavor
         1. Life useless, goal salvation – suck it up and hopefully you’ll die and go to heaven
         2. Revisited texts from past
            1. Role of humanity – personal accomplishments, personal happiness
            2. Literature/history of Greece/Rome has tons of examples
         3. Shift from afterlife to here and now
         4. Impact – focus on individuals means less of a focus on institutions – i
         5. Church
         6. Renaissance Man – multifaceted, multitalented – da Vinci – artist, scientist, musician, architect, engineer
      3. Characteristics of Renaissance Art
         1. themes before primarily religious, now more secular
         2. subjects = monarchs, popes, merchants, Greek/Roman deities, contemporary events, ordinary
         3. human figure shown more realistically – study of anatomy
         4. use perspective – three dimensional
         5. use of tempera replaced with oil paints
      4. Rebirth in the arts
         1. Powerful families in city-states – Florence, Venice, Milan, Rome
            1. Medici – other families became patrons
            2. Competed to show off who had the latest/best artists
         2. Human figure is realistic
            1. Not flat, two-dimensional, not proportional to surroundings
            2. Light, shadow
            3. autopsies
         3. Linear perspective
            1. Nearby objects drawn bigger
            2. Focal point
         4. Roman Church embraces
            1. Art adorns palaces/cathedrals
            2. Huge domes from architects
         5. Spread North
            1. More religious – colors/symbols
            2. Famed portraitists
         6. Compared to before
            1. Religious vs. religious and secular
            2. Art in cathedrals vs. public plazas/homes
            3. Flat and stiff vs. realistic, softer, human, 3-D
            4. Not worldly vs. of this world
            5. Greater variety of colors
      5. Writing
         1. Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press
            1. Invented by Song Dynasty centuries earlier
            2. Printing books now easier
               1. Before…too expensive…left to monasteries
               2. Before…printed in Latin
            3. Growing middle class starts buying books
            4. papermaking flourishes – from Arabs, from Chinese
            5. People more educated – demanded more books
            6. helped spread Protest Reformation views
         2. First books practical or political
            1. Machiavelli – The Prince – maintain power – end justifies the means
               1. Self-interest more important than morals
         3. Books became printed for Middle Class
            1. Goal then merely for entertainment
            2. Focus on daily lives of people
         4. Fluorished in England and Low Countries – Netherlands, Luxembourg, Belgium
            1. Erasmus – In Praise of Folly – satirizes politics
            2. Sir Thomas More – Utopia – ideal society – shared wealth/common interests
            3. William Shakespeare
               1. Humanism focus
                  1. Human faults
                  2. Strengths/faults comedy/tragedy
               2. Works explored classical world – Julius Caesar, etc.
   3. Protestant Reformation
      1. Power of the Church under feudalism
         1. Prince and emperors didn’t like sharing power with pope
            1. But…power increased if sanctioned by pope
         2. One unifying force
            1. Undisputed control on otherworldly issues
            2. But…also had huge sway over worldly issues
         3. Could only get to heaven if you do it the Church’s way
         4. Power of Eastern Orthodox Church falls with fall of Constantinople in 1453
            1. Official religion for only Russia and easternmost parts of Europe
               1. And even some of these were controlled by Turkish rule
      2. Church gets into trouble
         1. Sells indulgences
            1. Needs to finance patrons – Renaissance artists
            2. Reduces time in purgatory for self, family members already there
            3. Generates income – maintains power over masses
         2. Controls huge blocks of land
         3. Doesn’t pay taxes
         4. Loses legitimacy when there are two popes for awhile
            1. France 7 decade transfer of papacy to Avignon
            2. Two popes claiming allegiance from Catholics
         5. Church too concerned with wealth power
         6. Clergy not well-trained/spiritual
            1. Some appointed for political purposes, not spiritual
            2. Corrupt – spiritually bankrupt
         7. Early attempts at reform
            1. John Wycliffe – Oxford University – Church should return to spiritual values
               1. body burned and followers persecuted
            2. Jan Hus – Bohemian - urged reform
               1. Burned at the stake
               2. Led to decades-long war throughout Holy Roman Empire
            3. Savonarola – Dominican friar – clergy
               1. used violence to fight Church
      3. Martin Luther
         1. Frustrations
            1. Selling of indulgences
            2. Worldly nature of Rome
            3. Church services not in vernacular
            4. Salvation by God through grace, not indulgences or through Church
            5. Don’t need Church as intermediary – go right to Bible
         2. Diet at Worms – saved by prince, not killed – refused to recant
      4. Christianity Splits
         1. Consequences
            1. Luther’s followers – Lutheran
            2. New leaders with other Biblical interpretations
               1. John Calvin – predestination – the Elect
                  1. Later Huguenots in France, Pilgrims in U.S.
            3. England – Henry VIII creates Anglican Church
               1. Because Pope refused annulment
               2. Allows King to confiscate Church property – pass out to nobles
         2. Philosophical consequence
            1. If firmest institution – the Church – could be questioned, anything is fair game
            2. Nature of universe
            3. Role of government
            4. Foundation for future revolutions
         3. Protestant Beliefs
            1. Originally – favored institutional simplicity
               1. Believed the Catholic Church too concerned with politics, bureaucracy
               2. But…when Protestant Church got larger…guess what happened?
            2. Less emphasis on rituals/sacraments
            3. Opposed veneration of Mary/Saints
            4. Only grace of God can save sinful man/woman – not pope, priest, ritual
            5. Reading the Bible and interpreting for selves
               1. Led to higher literacy rates
            6. More lenient about divorce
            7. Allowed clergy to marry
            8. rejected transubstantiation – communion – wine and bread = blood and body
      5. Counter-Reformation – Catholic Reformation
         1. Gained credibility
            1. Stopped selling indulgences
            2. Trained Priests/Bishops
            3. Encourage clerics to live Christian life
               1. Jesuits – stricter training
         2. Reconfirmed absolute authority – didn’t budge
            1. Sunday mass mandatory
            2. Concil of Trent – 1545>1563 – defined rules
               1. How to get salvation
               2. Latin
               3. punished heretics
            3. Succeeds in winning back converts
      6. Results – European conflict
         1. Southern Europe + France and S. Germany are Catholic
         2. England, N. Germany, Scandinavia, Calvin – Protestant, Anglican, or Calvinist
      7. Effects of Reformation
         1. Luther’s insistence on Bible being translated to German/vernacular spread literacy
         2. support of German princes led to increased nationalism
         3. But…Thirty Years War – German princes – Lutheranism vs. Catholicism
            1. Germany can’t become unified nation
         4. Religious wars freed Netherlands (Calvinism) from Spain
         5. Henry VIII – separated from Church
            1. Head of Church of England (Anglican Church)
            2. Act of Supremacy – stripped Roman Catholic Church of land > gave to some nobles
         6. End of medieval way of life where Catholic Church sole source of stability
         7. Anticlericalism
            1. dismay over corruption of clergy
            2. Luther’s teachings say priests not necessary
         8. Growth of middle class – good works/material success a confirmation of salvation
         9. Created middle class that eventually established European democracies
         10. Increased questioning of political authority
         11. strengthening the power of monarchs as papal power decreased
         12. Encouraged education – Protestants wanted children to be able to read/interpret the Bible
         13. improved the status of women within marriage – writers encouraged love between man/wife
         14. created new Protestant churches
   4. Scientific Revolution
      1. Previous beliefs
         1. Aristotle – Earth center of universe
            1. Scientific thought built on this fallacy, tried to explain
         2. Church/political structure inhibited scientific thought
            1. Church – focus on salvation
            2. Feudal system – focus on daily, mundane tasks and military conquest
         3. Changed by
            1. Growth of universities
            2. Exposure to scientific successes of Islam
      2. Scientific Advances
         1. Copernicus – heliocentric theory
         2. Galileo – logically explained heliocentric theory – banned book, heretic
         3. Scientific method
            1. Reason alone not good enough
            2. Prove what mind concluded
            3. Demonstrate it to others
            4. Open it to experimentation
            5. Prove with mathematical equations
            6. Use scientific instruments to prove
         4. Brahe – observatory
         5. Bacon – inductive reasoning
         6. Kepler – planetary motion
         7. Newton – calculus to prove theories
      3. Science for practical uses
         1. Labor saving devices
         2. Power sources from water/wind
      4. Long term effects
         1. People questioning Church even more
         2. Some become Atheists – no god
         3. Deists – great clockmaker in the sky – set the world going, then hands off
         4. people stop relying on supernatural explanations
         5. People think they can explain other elements of the world through scientific method/questions
            1. Empirical research – based on observation and carefully obtained data
         6. Gave rise to Enlightenment/Age of Reason
      5. Different than East Asia
         1. Chinese dealt with specific facts that were practical in nature
         2. Europeans formulated general laws
   5. Enlightenment
      1. Life before Enlightenment
         1. Monarchs gain power
            1. Centralize authority
            2. Nationalism for people
            3. Promote exploration/colonization
            4. Rule with absolute authority
            5. Claim Divine Right – God supported what monarch chose
         2. Divine Right vs. Mandate of Heaven
            1. Mandate – emperors divinely chosen, rule as long as pleased heaven
               1. Didn’t rule justly, responsibly – heaven would take away
            2. Divine Right – rule however you want – God chose you
      2. Enlightened philosophes discussed
         1. Nature of political structures
            1. Social contracts – gov’ts exist for people, people give up power
            2. Conflicting Ideas
               1. Thomas Hobbes – Leviathan – people evil – enlightened despot – China
               2. John Locke – born free w/ inalienable rights – need consent of people
               3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau – humans free to obey laws – if just
               4. Montesquieu – separation of powers – legislative, executive, judicial
               5. Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations – laissez faire economics
                  1. Government regulation minimal to allow for free operation of supply and demand
         2. Nature of social structures
            1. Voltaire – religious toleration
            2. Deism – god who created earth then let run on natural law – great clockmaker
         3. Created encyclopedia – Denis Diderot’s Encyclopedie
            1. Included scientific and social scientific knowledge
      3. Effects
         1. Seeds of revolution
            1. Questioning of traditional authority
         2. Some leaders became Enlightened Monarchs/Despots
            1. Joseph II - Austria
            2. Frederick II – Prussia
         3. Basis of modern technology and political liberalism
      4. Characteristics of Enlightened thinkers
         1. science/natural law governs human nature
         2. power of human reason/rationalism to discern principles of natural law
         3. once determined, people should live by these laws
         4. living by these laws would lead to society’s economic, political and social problems
         5. this would lead to human progress
      5. Challenges of Enlightenment
         1. find an end to injustice, inequality, and superstition
         2. toleration for all religions
         3. breaking down of institutions (Church) that were corrupt and not based on natural law/reason
   6. Comparative Global Causes of Cultural Change
   7. Comparative Global Impacts of Cultural Change
   8. Changes and continuities in Confucianism
   9. Major developments and exchanges in the arts

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Demographic and Environmental Changes
   1. Diseases
      1. Unintended part of global exchange
      2. Similar to transportation of bubonic plague from Asia to Europe on ships
         1. yellow fever, malaria, smallpox, measles to Americas/syphilis to Europe
      3. Impact on Europe minimal
      4. Impact of European/African diseases on Americas significant/drastic
         1. Wiped out populations on initial islands
         2. In Spanish claimed lands, population dropped from 50 million to 4 million
   2. Animals
      1. Types of animals
         1. Horse
            1. New method of labor
            2. New method of transportation
               1. Changed lives of Native Americans – especially on plains
            3. Led to depleted herds due to hunting – think buffalo
         2. Domestic animals – cattle, goats, and chickens
            1. Source of protein for Native Americans
            2. Destruction of natural grasses due to grazing
   3. New Crops
      1. Americas
         1. Spanish organized huge estates – haciendas
            1. Allowed for growing of large quantities of single crop – monoculture
               1. Labor system – Indians or slaves
         2. Negatives of monoculture farming
            1. Environmentally damaging
            2. Also damaging to economic system – reliance on one crop
         3. Crops
            1. Coffee, bananas, tomatoes, corn, potatoes
            2. Corn/potatoes most significant
               1. High calorie yield per acre grown
            3. Sugar – most crucial cash crop
               1. Primarily on Caribbean Islands – grown, processed, refined
               2. Exceptionally labor intensive – stimulated growth of African slave trade
      2. Effects of food exchange
         1. Led to population increase due to balanced diet
         2. Led to increased slavery due to need for labor
   4. Comparative Population Trends
      1. Columbian Exchange – by 1750 continents looked totally different than in 1450
         1. Indigenous people wiped out
            1. Incas/Aztecs gone
            2. Huge cities destroyed
         2. Europeans moved by hundreds of thousands
         3. Forced migration of Africans
         4. Cities in Europe swelled
            1. Merchants getting richer from trade
      2. 1400 -1700 – Population of world from 350 million to 610 million
         1. Longest period of uninterrupted and rapid population growth
         2. Due mainly to improvements in agricultural techniques
         3. general warming of the climate
         4. Asia/Europe grew fastest
      3. Growth in China
         1. 80 million in 1400 to 160 million in 1600
      4. Causes of improved population growth
         1. Bringing more land under cultivation
         2. New strands of rice
         3. Improved farming methods
         4. Cessation of frequent conflicts/invasions
         5. lack of widespread outbreaks of disease
         6. new crops improve nutrition
      5. Growth of urban populations
         1. always magnets for people from the countryside wanting better, more exciting life
         2. new start for people driven off land
            1. Famine (French farmers late 1700s)
            2. Enclosure movement (English farmers 1500s)
            3. Too little productive land for too many people (English farmers 1500s)
      6. African Slave Trade
         1. Causes massive demographic shifts
            1. Brutal separation from family/culture
            2. Even if survived, absorbed into foreign culture that considered them property
               1. Many Christianized, but…
               2. Maintained parts of their language and culture
               3. Unique cultural synthesis – African music, dress, and mannerisms mixed with Spanish and indigenous cultures in the Americas
         2. forever alters racial and genetic make-up of the world
   5. Environmental
      1. Americas
         1. Chief goal – exploitation of natural resources
            1. Precious metals
               1. 185,000 kilograms (400,000 pounds) of gold
               2. 16 million kilograms (45 million pounds) of silver

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Diverse Interpretations
   1. Debates about the timing and extent of European predominance in the world economy
      1. European desire for world dominance
      2. Technological superiority
      3. Why some European city-states and not others?
      4. “great man theory” – visionary thinking of a few extraordinary people
         1. Prince Henry the Navigator and Sir Isaac Newton
         2. Or…did these people influence very few others
      5. Culture – life on earth had value of its own – life was getting better – no longer just think of afterlife
      6. Political theory – European monarchs needed money from new colonies/new trade networks
         1. Finance wars and add to their power
   2. Comparison of world economic system of this period to world economic network of previous period
      1. Changed how?
      2. Impact of trade on world’s civilizations
      3. Role of economic considerations in influencing other world interactions
2. Comparing Imperial System – European monarchy vs. land-based Asian Empire
   1. Methods of government
      1. Most common government
         1. single ruler with absolute and/or divine power
         2. nobility as counselors
         3. civil service
      2. Asian Empires
         1. Japan
            1. European feudalism was decentralized
               1. feudal aristocracy owed allegiance to monarch but ruled own territories
               2. later monarch would need to reign in powerful nobles to build single nation
            2. Japan feudalism became centralized

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Empire Building – Asia vs. Africa vs. Europe
   1. Movitation
      1. For all, increase wealth and power
      2. Africans/Europeans – convert nonbelievers to Christianity/Islam
   2. Means
      1. Force
      2. Europeans and Asians – firearms
      3. Africans – advent of Europeans slave trade/guns
   3. Impediments
      1. Europeans – lack of available territory on European continent
         1. Not rich in resources
         2. Needed new markets
         3. Needed markets not ruled by powerful government
      2. Africans and Asians
         1. Distance
         2. ability to set up stable and strong organizations to govern conquered people
         3. Rivals who worked against the rules to gain either local or imperial power
   4. Advantages
      1. Europeans
         1. Navies
         2. Advanced technology
      2. Africans
         1. Access to European weapons
      3. Asia
         1. Chinese dynasties alternating with periods that saw warring states
            1. Being part of an empire appealing to the Chinese at times
2. XIV. Interaction with the West – Russia vs. Ottoman/China/Tokugawa Japan/Mughal India
   1. Varying influences
      1. Russia
         1. Had been mistrust toward Europeans
            1. Europeans doing business in Russia had been kept away from ordinary
         2. Peter embarked on Europeanization effort to modernize nation
      2. Ottoman
         1. Took a military approach
         2. Although they traded with the West
            1. desired to enlarge empire at the expense of European nations
         3. Struck westward in an attempt to enlarge their domain
            1. Captured Constantinople in 1453
               1. Brought down teetering Byzantine Empire
            2. Tried to siege Vienna, but failed
            3. Continued fight against Holy Roman Empire in Mediterranean
               1. Took over eastern portion
      3. China – remained relatively isolated
         1. Under Ming
            1. allowed some missionaries Jesuit – but mostly shut off
               1. Matteo Ricci and Francis Xavier
            2. Portuguese and Spanish arrive – too big to conquer
               1. Set up embassies and trading houses
         2. Under Qing – shut off from west
            1. Europeans arrived, but Beijing declined offers to trade
            2. Shut off from technologies of Scientific Revolution
               1. Xenophobic ideals
         3. Considered themselves superior
         4. Contacts limited to treaty ports
      4. Japan – periods of isolation and acceptance
         1. 1543 - Portuguese sailors shipwrecked and washed ashore on Southern island of Kyushu
         2. Additional visits from European traders and missionaries
            1. Western technology – clocks and firearms
            2. Firearms
               1. Changed Japanese warfare from feudal to modern
               2. Allowed Tokugawa to maintain authority
            3. Christian missionaries
               1. At first, Catholic missionaries protected from Buddhist resistance
               2. Late 1580s Tokugawa shifted protection – saw Catholicism as threat
                  1. Missionaries ordered to leave
                  2. Christians persecuted and executed
                  3. Distrusted new religion
         3. By 1630 – trade only allowed in a few cities
            1. Japanese ships forbidden from traveling long distances
            2. Created seclusion laws – even limited trading with Chinese
         4. By 1640 – only Dutch and Chinese allowed to trade at Nagasaki
            1. Kept Japanese informed of Western developments – Dutch learning
            2. Adopted those Western traditions considered appropriate for Japanese goals
         5. Allowed Japanese merchant class to gain influence
            1. Set stage for pre-industrial development
      5. Mughal India – Europeans try to control areas
         1. Mughal emperor welcomed English East India Company in 1613
            1. By 1800, imperialism the goal
            2. 1857 company deposed final Mughal emperor
            3. Company disbanded – became part of British Empire in 1876
         2. Set up factories and trading ports
            1. British, Portuguese, French, Dutch
            2. French/British took over most
         3. Local princes act as allies to defend against Mughals – push out
         4. Not limited to treaty ports
            1. Started to try to affect local affairs
            2. Won the right to acquire territory
         5. British/French rivalry affected India – eventually Britain takes French land
   2. Varying consequences
   3. Penetrated some regions, but not others

   Examples of What You Need to Know
   Below are examples of the types of information you are expected to know contrasted with examples of those things you are not expected to know for the multiple-choice section.

   • * Neoconfucianism, but not specific Neoconfucianists
   • * Importance of European exploration, but not individual explorers
   • * Characteristics of European absolutism, but not specific rulers
   • * Reformation, but not Anabaptism or Huguenots
   • * Ottoman conquest of Constantinople, but not the Safavid Empire
   • * Siege of Vienna (1688–89), but not the Thirty Years' War
   • * Slave plantation systems, but not Jamaica's specific slave system
   • * Institution of the harem, but not Hurrem Sultan

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Major Empires
   1. European Overview
      1. Most monarchies
         1. divine right ordained by God
      2. Retain pure bloodlines to God
         1. intermarriage among royal families of different nations common
         2. monarchies of one nation gained international influence
            1. ties of marriage/inheritance led to alliances
      3. Strong national loyalties
         1. Led to internal/external conflicts
            1. religious fights between Protestants and Catholics
            2. internal civil wars between monarch and nobles
            3. battles stemming from trade disputes between rival nations
      4. Spain/Portugal start off strong – England/France replace
   2. Ottoman
      1. Background Information
         1. Abbasid Caliphate loses power in 1200s
            1. Decades of chaos and confusion followed
            2. Strong Islamic empires emerged to replace fallen caliphate
               1. Ottoman Empire
               2. Safavid Empire in Persia
               3. Mughal Empire in India
               4. Characteristics of all three
                  1. extremely centralized
                  2. technologically advanced
                  3. military powerful
                  4. “gunpowder empires”
                     1. Mastery of weaponry
                     2. Effective use of weapons for maintaining regional power
         2. History of Ottoman Empire
            1. Islamic Empire overrun by Mongols in 13th century
            2. Byzantine Empire huge influence
               1. controlled most of Turkey
               2. Influenced Southeastern Europe/Russia
            3. Mongol Empire fell, Osman Bey led Muslim Ottoman Empire
               1. Eastern Turkey – named after first leader Osman
                  1. On the steppes of Central Asia
                  2. Migrated westward to Asia Minor in 1200s
                  3. Vassals of the Seljuk Turks
                  4. Established own state in 1280 and then slowly expanded
               2. Challenged Byzantine Empire
               3. Over 14th century, gradually expanded
               4. 1453 invaded Constantinople
            4. by 1550 controlled most of former Roman Empire, except for Italy west
         3. Constantinople renamed Istanbul
            1. Converted cathedrals to mosques – Hagia Sophia
         4. Religious policy – extremely tolerant – most tolerant empire in Europe
            1. Jews/Christians allowed to practice
            2. As empire grew, so did religious persecution
               1. conquered large areas – enslaved Christian subjects’ children
                  1. fighting warriors – Janisaries
         5. Selim I – 1512 - claimed to be rightful heir of caliphs
            1. Istanbul became center of Islamic civilization
         6. Suleiman I – the Magnificent started Golden Age
            1. Increased military spending
            2. encouraged development of the arts
            3. 1529 – laid siege on Vienna, but stopped
               1. Could have changed course of Western Europe
         7. Lasted until 1922
            1. greatly expanded reach of Islam
            2. kept Eastern Europe in state of flux/always threatened
               1. Western Europe could dominate
               2. Exploration allowed them to bypass Ottoman Empire
                  1. Traded directly with India, China, Americas
         8. Accomplishments
            1. transforming Constantinople into Muslim capital – Istanbul
            2. turning many of the great Byzantine churches, such as Hagia Sophia, into mosques
            3. building an empire on part of 3 continents
            4. maintaining large multiethnic empire from Belgrade to Egypt for 600 years
            5. creating extensive civil service and bureaucracy
               1. Using slaves and subject peoples for labor
            6. reasonably accessible government allowing citizens to petition the sultan regarding religious and political issues
      2. Political Structure
         1. Sultan – sovereign over ministers – wazirs
            1. Ruled with help of provincial governors – beys
            2. Gradually power taken from local rulers
               1. held from Topkapi Palace “Cannon Gate” – Istanbul
            3. 1500 sultan claims title of caliph – religiously legitimizing political authority
         2. Military
            1. Conquests
               1. Destruction of Byzantine Empire – 1453
                  1. 80,000 army + artillery
               2. Pressed into N. Africa
               3. Pushed into Europe – Romania
                  1. Constant assault on Austria’s Holy Roman Empire
                  2. Defeated Hungary
               4. Superiority of Mediterranean until 1500s
                  1. Remained powerful presence until World War I
            2. Military
               1. Incorporated gunpowder artillery, cannon into armies
               2. Cannon on navies
               3. Cavalry supported with janissaries “new troops”
                  1. recruited from childhood from conquered Christians
                  2. Converted to Islam and raised to be loyal to sultan
                  3. Slaves…but with many privileges
                  4. Advanced training in using gunpowder
                  5. System kept them at forefront of world military affairs
            3. Politics and religion
               1. Governed diverse religions
                  1. Variety of Christians – Orthodox, Nestorian, Coptic, Catholic, Protestant
                  2. Sunni and Shiite Muslims
               2. Many languages – Turkish, Arabic, Persian
               3. Religious tolerance for non-Muslims
                  1. Allowed to convert to Islam, but not forced
                  2. Pay a special head tax
                  3. Not treated badly – not totally equal, but not persecuted
                  4. Kept peace with economic benefits
               4. Divided into administrative units – millets
               5. Sultan position hereditary
                  1. not always inherited
                     1. sultan usually didn’t marry – heirs through concubines
                     2. concubine’s son chosen as heir = “queen mother”
                        1. Influence as advisor
                  2. New sultan often killed brothers to eliminate competition
      3. Social
         1. Women
            1. Elite
               1. Several influential, yet informal roles
                  1. Queen mothers
                     1. ran royal house
                     2. diplomatic relations w/ foreign naitions
                     3. Controlled marriage alliances
                  2. Harem – complex elite social network
                     1. Originally slaves (not Islamic) or prisoners b, Trained to read Qu’ran, sew, perform music
                     2. Ranked by status
                     3. Could leave harem to marry officials
                     4. Few used for sexual purposes
                     5. Members of sultan’s extended family
                     6. Mother influence over sons – raised and then respected
            2. Outside imperial family
               1. Not seen in public in Istanbul/major cities
               2. Right to own/retain property
               3. Purchased urban real estate
               4. Could testify for selves in court
         2. Culture
            1. Intellectual advancement high
               1. Lost dominance over Europeans in 1600s
                  1. Europe’s Scientific Revolution
                  2. Complacency
            2. Skilled architects
               1. Mosques + minarets/large domes
               2. Renowned for mosaics
         3. Class structure
            1. Sultan – leader
            2. Vizier – prime minister
            3. Divan – cabinet of advisors
            4. Janissaries – elite military corps of converted slaves
            5. Regional officials
            6. General population
               1. merchants, farmers/peasants, artisans
   3. China
      1. Political
         1. History - Ming
            1. Ming Dynasty – 1368-1644
               1. Founded by Zhu Yuanzhang
                  1. Warlord who assisted in kicking out Mongols
               2. Reacted against Mongol rule by returning to Chinese tradition
            2. Ming Dynasty reforms
               1. Scholar gentry restored
               2. Confucian based civil service exam reinstated/expanded
                  1. Women still banned from taking exam
               3. Currupt/incompetent public officials beaten in public
            3. Brief attempts at exploration trade
               1. Zheng He – brief, several major expeditions of exploration/trade
               2. Sailed through Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf
               3. By 1430 scholar-gentry persuaded Ming leaders to call back
                  1. Too costly, need to spend money on Mongol threat
            4. Successes
               1. Politically dynamic and militarily active state – conquered neighbors
               2. Economically prosperous
               3. Population grew steadily in 1300s and 1400s – recovering from war/disease
            5. Decline
               1. Last 200 years ruled by incompetent rulers
                  1. Maintenance of dams, dikes, irrigation systems neglected
                  2. Classic pattern of decline
                     1. rulers effective/dynamic at beginning - 14th/15th
                     2. Become complacent – withdraw to Forbidden City
               2. Nomadic peoples continued to pressure Great Wall
                  1. Led to higher taxes
                  2. 1644 – Jurchens, Manchus, conquered Ming dynasty
                  3. Became the Qing dynasty – ruled into 20th century
                     1. Last dynasty
               3. Court eunuchs became very powerful/corrupt – influenced decisions
               4. Scandals involving misappropriation of imperial funds
                  1. scholar-gentry protest
               5. Massive influx of precious metals triggered inflation
                  1. Spanish/Portuguese only had silver to offer
               6. Agricultural yields shrank
                  1. Soil quality worsens + cooler climate
                  2. Land can’t accommodate population growth
               7. Peasant revolt
               8. Last Ming emperor – Chung-cheng committed suicide after trying to kill family
            6. Remained relatively isolated from the west
         2. History – Qing/Manchu Dynasty – 1644-1911
            1. Manchu
               1. Pastoral nomads from North
                  1. Manchuria – ethnically distinct
               2. last imperial family/foreign rule of China
               3. Incorporated elements of Chinese culture
                  1. used traditional civil service examination
                  2. encouraged neo-Confucian values
                     1. obedience to ruler strictly enforced
                     2. Confucian ideal of traditional agriculture
                     3. Disallowed technical advancement
                     4. Return to feudal past
                  3. Eunuchs employed as court officials
                  4. Adopted a xenophobic foreign policy
                  5. Manchus given superior positions over Chinese
               4. Kept themselves apart as rulers
            2. Qing economics
               1. Full scale trade with Europeans began under Qing – 1690s
               2. Closely regulated trade by state
               3. Went through port of Canton exclusively – like Nagasaki
               4. Sold porcelain, tea, and silk
               5. Allowed few imports – usually paid with silver
               6. favorable balance of trade
            3. Qing decline
            4. rulers grew softer and less active
            5. population grew faster than economy
            6. poverty worsened
            7. slipping backward in terms of technological innovation, scientific advancement, global power
               1. Left selves open to influence and the later domination
         3. During time period, power shift began
            1. didn’t benefit from scientific/technological advances of Europe
      2. Social
         1. Ming Dynasty reforms
            1. Thought control sanctioned by government
            2. Neo-Confucianism increased its influence – strict obedience to state
            3. Women continued to occupy a subordinate position
         2. Foreigners allowed under Ming
            1. late 16th century – Jesuits allowed to enter
               1. Chinese interested in scientific and technological knowledge
               2. Allowed to remain through Ming Dynasty
         3. Social hierarchy under Ming
            1. Absolute power from ruler > scholar gentry > farmers > merchants
               1. Denigration of commercial class becomes problem later on
               2. Aggressive European traders able to have impact in 1700s
         4. Under Qing – Manchu
            1. Manchus above Chinese
            2. Manchus not allowed to engage in trade or manual labor
            3. Marriage between Manchus and Chinese forbidden
            4. All Han men required to wear their hair braided in the back
               1. Found humiliating
               2. Hairstyle – que – visual image west has of China
               3. shave their foreheads “lose your hair or lose your head” Chinese proverb
         5. Cultural grandeur/elegance – peak during Ming dynasty
            1. literary masterpieces, fine porcelain, architecture, revival of Confucianism
   4. Portugal
      1. Political
      2. Social
   5. Spain
      1. Political
         1. King Ferdinand from Christian North + Queen Isabella from Muslim South united
            1. created nation-state
            2. aggressively supported exploration
               1. underwriting Columbus’ exploration
               2. establishing empires in the New World
            3. Formidable navy fleet – Spanish Armada
               1. Ruled the seas for 16th century
         2. Charles V
            1. Grandparents on one side Hapsburgs on the other side Isabella and Ferdinand
            2. Empire stretched from Austria to Germany to Spain
               1. 1519 – Holy Roman Emperor
                  1. Held parts of France, Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Spain
                  2. Possessions brought wars/riches
                     1. Fought France for Italy
                     2. Fought Ottoman Empire for Eastern Europe
                     3. Defended Catholicism in Germany
                  3. 1556 – retired to monastery – split throne
         3. Philip II gets throne of Spain
            1. Controls part of France, Sicily and Netherlands
               1. Greatest expansion in the New World
               2. Rebirth of culture under Spanish Renaissance
            2. Devout
               1. continuation of Spanish Inquisition for heretics
               2. Catholic Reformation against Protestants
               3. Increase in missionary work
            3. Dutch revolted
               1. wanted autonomy – develop own empire
               2. Protestant
               3. 1581 – Northern provinces gained independence – Dutch Netherlands
                  1. Southern part remains loyal to Spain – later becomes Belgium
            4. Other signs of failure
               1. Spanish forces fighting for Catholicism in France unsuccessful
               2. English defeated Spanish at the British Isles
               3. Containment of Spain, Rise of Britain
               4. Mid 17th century had colonial holdings, but influence failing
            5. Why Spanish failure?
               1. Amassed enormous sums of gold
               2. Spent just as quickly
                  1. Wars
                  2. Missionary activity
                  3. Maintenance of huge fleet
         4. Accomplishments
            1. expelling Moors and ending Islamic rule in southwestern Europe
            2. sponsoring maritime exploration that led to the creation of a vast overseas Spanish Empire
            3. close ties with the Catholic Church
            4. loss of the Netherlands as a Spanish holding
            5. literary flowering that produced Don Quixote – one of the greatest modern works of Western literature
      2. Social
         1. Exploration and colonization ensured spread of Spanish language, culture, Catholicism
            1. extended across Atlantic
   6. Russia
      1. Political
         1. Effects of Mongol Rule
            1. Nation with weakened emphasis on education, trade and manufacturing
         2. Third Rome
            1. After Rome, Constantinople – Orthodox Christianity moved to Moscow
         3. Ivan III/IV – declared Russia free of Mongol control – 1480
            1. established absolute rule in Russia
            2. expanded empire eastward
               1. with expansion added substantial Muslim minority
            3. Cossacks
               1. Recruited peasants – freed from feudal relationship
                  1. Conquer eastern land
                  2. Inhabit eastern land
               2. Ivan the Terrible – Czar – Russian for Caesar
                  1. Ruled under reign of terror
                     1. Executed anyone who disagreed
            4. Comparing Russia with Western Europe
               1. Russia – centralization of authority, but still feudalism vs. W. Europe evolving
               2. Russia remains isolated from west, pushed eastward
                  1. W. Europe – Renaissance , exploration, religious debate, scientific rev/enlightenment passed over
                     1. Not part of Renaissance, controlled by illiterate Mongols
                     2. Not part of Reformation, not Catholic
               3. Growth territorial, not artistic/intellectual
            5. Following Ivan IV 1584
               1. Fight for the throne – Time of Troubles
               2. Feudal lords vie for power – kill one after another
               3. Michael Romanov czar 1613
                  1. Romanov family rules until 1917
            6. Romanov family
               1. consolidated power, ruled ruthlessly
               2. peasants became slaves/serfs
               3. spread empire – 1689 from Ukraine to Manchuria/Pacific Ocean
               4. Created state control over the Russian Orthodox Church
            7. Peter the Great – 1682-1725
               1. Convinced he must westernize Russia
                  1. Larger agricultural nation than East Asian empires or W. Europe
                  2. Travels to Europe to try to get support against Turks
                     1. Gained appreciation for Western ideas
               2. Russia’s first navy
               3. New capital – St. Petersburg
                  1. Home to hundreds of engineers, scientists, artists, architects
               4. War with Sweden gained warm water port
               5. Did not accept Western democratic trends – parliamentary government
               6. Created secret police
               7. Encouraged the continuation of serfdom
                  1. Bound to land only – not to person
                  2. Kept economy bound to agriculture
            8. Catherine the Great
               1. Continued xpansionist and westernization policies of Peter
               2. Laws restricting serfs were harsher than before
               3. Reduced severe punishments for crimes
               4. Added new territory down to Northern California
         4. Social
            1. Before Romanov family, excluded from Western Change
               1. Illiteracy of Mongols + Orthodox + Geography
            2. Peter the Great
               1. St. Petersburg- “window to the west”
                  1. recruited finest scientists/artists to change Russia
               2. Women nobles forced to dress in western fashions
               3. Men shaved beards, wear western clothing
                  1. Out with the old, in with the new
                  2. Showed denial of Mongol traditions
               4. Architecture of city done by serfs
            3. Catherine the Great – 1762-1796
               1. Enlightened policies of education and wester culture
               2. Fiercely enforced serfdom
               3. Devalued merchant class
               4. Territorially expanded west – Poland/Black Sea territory – Mediterranean
            4. Westernization
               1. By end of 18th century looked a lot different
                  1. Gained sea access through Black/Baltic Seas
                  2. Actively sought cultural access to the west
               2. Unlike Chinese/Japanese who fully withdrew
                  1. Russians wanted to engage the West, emulate it
   7. France
      1. Political
         1. Unification began after Hundred Years War drove English from France
            1. central authority in a strong monarch
         2. Religious differences prevented full unity
            1. Largely Catholic
            2. French Protestants – Huguenots
               1. Sizable and influential minority
            3. Mid to late 16th century fought brutally
               1. 1598 – Henry IV – Edict of Nantes – environment of toleration
               2. Henry IV – Bourbon king
                  1. Bourbons ruled France until 1792
         3. Comparing England and France in 17th century
            1. France ruled by series of strong and able monarchs – Bourbon Dynasty
            2. After Elizabeth, England went from…
               1. Monarchy>commonwealth>Restoration>Glorious Revolution
            3. France’s Estates General weaker than England’s Parliament
               1. Estates General didn’t meet for most of 17th century
                  1. King ruled successfully under divine right
               2. Parliament in England
                  1. limited power of monarchs
                  2. representatives chosen by voters from elite classes
         4. Cardinal Richeliu
            1. Catholic – chief advisor to Bourbons
            2. Strengthened French crown
               1. Didn’t seek to destroy Protestants
               2. Helped them attack Catholic Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire
                  1. Empire’s fall would benefit France
            3. New bureaucratic class
               1. noblesse de la robe – bureaucrats – run government
               2. prepared France for strong position under Louis XIV
         5. Louis XIV
            1. Four years old when took crown – mother/Cardinal Mazarin ruled for him
            2. Long rule 1643-1715 exemplified grandiose whims of absolute monarchy
               1. “Sun King” “Most Christian King”
               2. Patronized arts – contributed to culture, glory of France
               3. “I am the State”
               4. Built Versailles to prove power
               5. Never summoned Estates General to meet
               6. Revoked Edict of Nantes – forced Huguenots to leave
               7. Appointed Jean Baptiste Cobert to manage royal funds
                  1. Increase size of French empire
                     1. More business transactions
                     2. More taxes
                  2. France constantly at war
                  3. Warfare and mercantilist policies allowed French to get rich
                  4. War of Spanish Succession – 1701-1714 hurt plans
            3. War of Spanish Succession
               1. Louis XIV’s grandson inherits Spanish thrown
                  1. Europe afraid of supernation/empire
                  2. France controls huge chunk of Americas
                  3. Spain controls most of Mexico, South America
               2. England, Holy Roman Empire, German princes vs. France
               3. Eventually – grandson – Philip V can rule
                  1. Spain loses land to England
                  2. Spain can’t unite with France
         6. By 1750 military strength starting to fade
         7. Still center of culture for Europe
         8. Accomplishments
            1. Established academies for study of commerce and science
            2. Close ties between the Catholic Church and the French state formed
            3. Solidified autocratic control over France
            4. Most ornate and expensive palace in Europe was built at Versailles
            5. Sponsored writers and musicians
            6. Engaged in costly wars that strained the royal treasury
         9. Characteristics of absolute monarchies
            1. maintenance of strong armies
            2. establishment of elaborate bureaucracies
            3. high taxes to support the frequent wars
            4. believed in divine right of kings
            5. territorial expansion a goal
         10. Characteristics of European nation states
             1. well-suited to continent full of various cultural groups
             2. governs people who share a common culture, common language
             3. has definite geographic boundaries
             4. enjoys sovereignty
             5. created rivalries and divisions that often led to war
      2. Social
   8. England
      1. Political
         1. Mid 1400s war between two powerful families
            1. The War of the Roses
            2. House of Lancaster vs. the House of York
            3. New ruling dynasty – the Tudors – Henry VIII and Elizabeth
            4. Accomplishments
               1. broke with the Catholic Church and fromed the Church of England
                  1. monarch at the head
               2. Wales was absorbed into the domain of England
               3. Defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588
                  1. Marked beginning of Spanish decline, Egnland ascendancy
               4. Encouraged the arts – High Renaissance bloomes
               5. Literary achievement notable – Ben Johnson and William Shakespeare

            a, Henry VIII – 1509-1547 - Church of England

            1. Henry VIII nullified pope’s authority in England – Act of Supremacy
               1. Divorce wife and marry Ann Boleyn for male heir
                  1. Daughter was Elizabeth – oversaw golden/bloody age
         2. Elizabethan Age – 1558-1603
            1. Commercial expansion
               1. Muscovy Co mpany – first joint stock company – to Russia
               2. British East India Company
            2. Exploration and colonization in the New World
               1. Sped up after defeat of Spanish Armada in 1588
               2. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe
               3. First English colonies in Virginia – Jamestown
            3. Religious battles unleashed by Protestant Reformation
               1. Anglicans – Church of England battling Catholics
               2. Puritans regularly persecuted
         3. James I power in 1607
            1. Attempted to accommodate Catholics and Puritans – problems persisted
               1. Puritans didn’t recognize king for religious matters
                  1. James claims divine right
                  2. Pilgrims find a new home in New World
         4. Charles I – 1625
            1. Petition of Right – desperate for money – Parliament has power of purse
               1. Limited taxes
               2. Forbid unlawful imprisonment
               3. Ignores petition after getting funds – doesn’t let parliament meet 11 yrs
            2. 1640 Scotland doesn’t like Charles rule
               1. Parliament called back
                  1. Long parliament – 20 years – 1640-1660
                  2. Refused to give him money to fight Irish
                  3. Charles sends troops to arrest parliament members
                  4. Leads to civil war
               2. Roundheads – Oliver Cromwell vs. Charles’s Cavaliers
                  1. Roundheads win – king executed
                  2. Cromwell rose to power as Lord Protector
                     1. Beginnings of English Commonwealth
         5. Oliver Cromwell
            1. Religious intolerance
               1. Violence against Catholics/Irish
                  1. Encouraged Protestants to move to Northern Ireland
                     1. Led to conflicts later
                  2. Much resentment
            2. Upon Cromwell’s death – Charles II brought to throne for limited monarchy
               1. Stuart Restoration
         6. Charles II – 1660
            1. Closet Catholic – gave religious rights to people
            2. Habeus Corpus – no unlawful arrests without due process
         7. James II – openly Catholic
            1. Believed in Divine Right of Kings
               1. People feared he’d make a Catholic nation
            2. Fled to France under Glorious Revolution
               1. Replaced in 1688 by son-in-law and daughter – William and Mary
         8. William and Mary – 1689
            1. Protestant rulers of the Netherlands
            2. English Bill of Rights – created constitutional monarchy
               1. England’s future rulers Anglican
               2. Powers limited
               3. laws passed by parliament now laws of the land
               4. all taxes only levied by parliament
               5. citizens allowed to petition monarch with grievances
               6. freedom of speech within Parliament
            3. Radical replacement of sitting king, set precedent for making royalty figureheads
      2. Social
         1. Elizabethan Age
            1. Shakespeare wrote his masterpieces
   9. Tokugawa Japan
      1. Political
         1. History
            1. The Warring States Period – 1467-1600 – Era of Independent Lords
               1. Open defiance of the Shogun led to political fragmentation
                  1. small regions fighting against each other
                  2. Governed by a series of military governments – shogunates
                  3. By late 1300s/1400s, becoming increasingly decentralized
               2. 200 daimyo – feudal lords fought each other
                  1. Samurais followed bushido – way of the warrior
                     1. Some left masters/masters killed - ronin
               3. “samurai military aristocracy” further established
               4. Ended in climatic battle of 1600
                  1. Toyotomi Hideyoshi united Japan
                     1. Appointed five regents to rule until son got older
                     2. These five regents fought each other for power
                  2. Winner Tokugawa Ieyasu
                     1. Forced Hideyoshi’s son to kill himself
                     2. Technically ruled in the name of the emperor, but…
            2. Tokugawa Shogunate – bakufu - 1603 – Tokugawa family acquired the title of shogun
               1. Ruled Japan from city of Edo – Tokyo – known as Edo period
               2. ended the feudal fighting
               3. Established new feudal order that would last for centuries
               4. 15 Tokugawa shoguns
                  1. Stability, law and order their priorities
                  2. Known as the Great Peace
         2. Centralized authority
            1. Large estates of daimyo broken up and taken over by Tokugawa
            2. Peace came at the price of dictatorship
               1. Increased social stratification
         3. Economic gains
            1. Population grew rapidly
            2. Rice and grain production more than doubled
            3. Highly urbanized – Edo one of world’s largest cities
            4. Built elaborate network of roads and canals
            5. Manufacturing – lacquerware, pottery, steel, and quality weapons
            6. Merchant class gains in wealth and power
      2. Social
         1. Warring States Period
            1. Religion
               1. New sects of Buddhism arrived from China
                  1. attracted Samurai class
                     1. Buddhist detachment from worldly pain
                     2. impervious to suffering
         2. Edo Period – Tokugawa Shogunate
            1. Class hierarchy – social stratification becomes unbreakoutable
               1. Samurai – martial elite, including shogun, all daimyo, soldiers
               2. Farmers – peasants whose duty was to feed the nation
               3. Craftspeople – makers of goods such as clothes/tools
               4. Traders/merchants – business class who bought and sold
               5. Eta:outcasts – engaged in “unclean” professions – animal skinning/tanning
               6. Tokugawa laws – rigid to protect the status quo/privileges of samurai
                  1. Social class defined at birth
                  2. Farmers had to stay on their land
                  3. only samurai allowed to carry long sword
                  4. Japanese forbidden from leaving Japanese islands – death
                  5. One Dutch ship could trade per year – Kyushu
                  6. Families of daimyo lived in Edo – guarantees loyalty
                  7. Christianity outlawed
                  8. Some southern daimyo converted and rebelled – cause
      3. Neo-Confucianism
         1. Tokugawa adopted to form traditional basis
            1. Like China, reciprocal relationship between ruled and ruler
            2. Ruler maintains order/acts benevolent and ruled obey those in charge
            3. Creates harmony in society
         2. Hallmarks – primary points
            1. Historicism – looked to the past as a guide – Shogun ruled in name of Emperor
            2. Rationalism – investigate natural and human world to discover principles of human interactions
            3. Basic Human Relations – Stressed social order, rejected Buddhist metahphysics – Five Relationships
            4. Ethnocentrism – saw selves as superior to outsiders
               1. Pride in divine emperor
               2. Own uniqueness as a people
      4. Women
         1. Women lived under increased restrictions
            1. Particularly the samurai class – guided by Confucian teachings
         2. Wives obey husbands or face death
         3. Little authority over property
         4. Females educated at home, brothers at school
            1. Upper class families – women expressed their literacy through creativity
         5. Must display social graces that matched husband’s rank and status
         6. Lower class women
            1. Gender relations more egalitarian
            2. Both worked in fields
            3. Women given respect as homemakers/mothers
            4. Some peasant women active in social protests/political demonstrations
            5. Girl children less valued
               1. Some sold into prostitution
               2. Some put to death
      5. Culture
         1. Castle architecture partially imitated Europe
            1. hilltop, stone, small windows, watchtowers, massive walls
         2. Drama
            1. More restrained drama replaced with kabuki theater
            2. Kabuki – emphasized violence, physical action and music
               1. Often depicted urban life – brothels, dance halls
               2. Criticized for its potentially corrupting effect
         3. Art
            1. Woodblock Print becomes established artform
            2. Borrowed from outsiders
               1. Japanese potters borrowed Korean ceramics techniques
               2. Experimented with western style oil painting
                  1. Perspective/interplay of light
               3. Reason for difference
                  1. Urban areas developing rapidly
                  2. Merchant and artisan class developing – patrons
                  3. Confucian values carried less weight
   10. Mughal India
       1. Political
          1. History
             1. Collapse of Delhi Sultanate in 1300s
                1. Began to lose territory
                2. Delhi taken and ransacked by Mongol Timur in 1398
             2. 1526, Babur – descendant of Mongols/Turks
                1. Migrated from steppes to India
                2. Had lost kingdom in central Asia – came from Afghanistan
                3. 12,000 men defeated over 100,000
             3. Used superior gunpowder technology to conquer northern India
             4. Empire lasted until mid 19th century
          2. Akbar – 1560-1605
             1. expanded empire through north and central India under control
             2. Established a bureaucracy
             3. patronized the arts
             4. encouraged cooperation between Hindus and Muslims – relatively tolerant
          3. Mughal Empire
             1. Mughal – Persian word for Mongol – English rich person called mogul
             2. Empire continued for 200 years 1530-1700s
             3. Mughal rulers – Muslim
                1. One of three great Muslim empires – Ottoman Empire/Safavid Persia
                   1. One of the “gunpowder” empires
                      1. Used military force and weapons technology to maintain power
                   2. Lost ground to nations of Europe during late 1600s
             4. Economics
                1. Thrived thanks to boom in Indian cotton trade
          4. Decline
             1. cost of warfare and defensive efforts to protect northern border
                1. Tried to attack Marathas in the south
             2. leaders failed to bridge differences between Hindus and Muslims
             3. Centralized government returned to local political organizations
             4. Decline of centralized power opened up to foreign control
                1. British
             5. Last emperor – Aurangzeb tried to impose orthodox Islam
                1. Undid earlier tolerant policies
                   1. Got rid of Hindus from public service
          5. European arrival
             1. set up trading ports and factories
             2. Portuguese set up on coast of Goa
             3. 1696 – British East India Company takes over Calcutta from Mughals
                1. Hindu princes allies to push out Mughal rule
       2. Social
          1. Treatment of women
             1. Akbar broke with Hindu/Muslim tradition regarding treatment of women
             2. encouraged widows to remarry
             3. outlawed sati – ritual suicide at husband’s funeral pyre
             4. encouraged merchants to arrange market days for women
                1. Allows those following purday – confinement – to get out
             5. By end of Mughal empire – changes had largely been discontinued
             6. Child marriage attempts to slow/end
             7. Female aristocrats
                1. awarded titles
                2. earned salaries
                3. owned land
                4. ran businesses
                5. some received education and expressed creative talents openly
             8. Women of all castes able to supplement income with woven products
             9. But…some ideas reflected Muslim law
                1. Cloistered inside the home – especially upper class women
                2. Women expected to serve under husbands
          2. Mughal art and architecture
             1. blended Muslim styles with those of other societies
             2. Mughal artists created miniatures – some of Christian religious subjects
             3. Architects blended white marble of Indian architecture
                1. W/ Muslim arches and domes
                2. Taj Mahal constructed by Shah Jahan as tomb for wife
             4. Dynastic patronage of the arts
             5. Substantial written works on Indian history and philosophy
   11. African Empires
       1. Political
       2. Social
       3. Case Study
          1. Kongo
          2. Benin
          3. Oyo
          4. Songhay

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

Major Developments

1. Questions of Periodization
   1. Major points
      1. Shift in power to the West
         1. Rise of the West with fall of China and India creates imbalance in power that favors Europeans for next 200 years
      2. World becomes smaller – almost all civilizations touched by trade
      3. New Empires – Spain, Portugal, England, France, Netherlands, Ottoman, Russian, Mughal, Ming
      4. Age of Gunpowder
   2. Changes at end of Postclassical Era
      1. Independent societies (Aztecs, Incas) falling apart
      2. Arab power declining
      3. New invasions – Mongols
      4. Ottoman Empire gains power
         1. Europeans threatened by new force to East
      5. Chinese flirt with trade, but Ming bureaucrats pull back
      6. Europe enters age of exploration
   3. Western Europe
      1. Unusual agricultural civilization
      2. New view of family – nuclear
         1. Love toward spouse
         2. Affection toward children
      3. Return to rational thought
      4. Stable political structures
         1. Absolute monarchy
         2. Parliamentary monarchies
      5. Religious reformers
         1. Reform the Church
         2. Protestant Reformation
   4. Effects of Global Economy
      1. By 1750, almost everyone knows everyone
      2. Food exchange – new staple crops to Africa (corn), Europe (potato)
      3. Unequal relationships – master, slave, owners, workforce
      4. Slaves and serfs
      5. Diseases
   5. Themes
      1. Declining emphasis of nomads
      2. Direct relationships – ambassadors replace intermediaries (Nomads)
      3. Gender relations remain patriarchal
      4. Labor relations change – master/slave – abuse of indigenous peoples
      5. A few commercial leaders get rich
      6. Environmental changes
         1. food, animal, disease exhange
      7. Native vegetation
         1. Deforestation for staple crops
         2. Grazing land for newly introduced beasts of burden
      8. Centralization of governments
         1. Modern government
            1. bureaucracies
            2. agencies
            3. admiralties
            4. treasuries
            5. general staff
            6. state banks
      9. Nation-states began to emerge
         1. solid political units with fixed borders
         2. sense of national unity
         3. populations relatively homogenous – language/ethnicity
   6. Larger Trends
      1. Americas overwhelmed by outsiders
      2. Three trends
         1. Western expansion
         2. Globalization of trade
         3. Gunpowder
      3. Reactions
         1. Embrace by choice
         2. Embrace by force
         3. Choose to remain independent, involve in trade on own terms
   7. Why 1450 and 1750
      1. 1450
         1. End of the Middle Ages
         2. Beginning of the Northern Renaissance – away from Italian city-states
         3. English evicted from France
         4. Unified France began to exercise its power
         5. Globalization of trade begins
         6. Direct contact between Europe and sub-Saharan Africa/Americas
         7. End of the Byzantine Empire
         8. Ottoman Turks rise to power

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Role of Gender in Empire
   1. Women secondary status most parts of globe – patriarchal
      1. social roles, economic opportunities, political influence
   2. Marriage remained primarily economic arrangement
      1. Method of gaining/transferring wealth and property
      2. Ensured inheritance of goods/assets by legitimate heirs
      3. With Protestant Reformation gained more marriages based on love
   3. Europe gained limited awareness of injustices toward women
   4. Europe – limited access to small # of women
      1. Noble/aristocratic women
      2. From emerging middle class
      3. Gained education
      4. Active in business
      5. Make scientific discoveries
      6. Become artists/writers
   5. Women discovered/developed ways to gain influence/advance desires
      1. Advising husbands/sons
      2. Educating children
      3. Running/help running business
      4. Managing household finances
   6. Generalizations
      1. Higher up in social class – more freedom to be involved in education/arts – servants did work
      2. Lower down social scale – more time spent w/ family, in fields, tending livestock
      3. Cities opened up opportunities for women for crafts/engage in commerce
      4. Higher status of women negatives
         1. Less value to contribution
         2. More need to be protected
      5. Women more valued in lower class – contribution more needed
      6. Urban/commercial vs. rural/agricultural vs. hierarchical/decentralized
   7. China
      1. Confucianism governed relationship of women to families
         1. Obey fathers and brothers and then husbands
         2. Always of subservience
         3. Influenced Japan
            1. Women obeyed fathers, husbands, and if widowed, sons
   8. Muslim world
      1. Harem shows how culture defines roles
         1. Initially Arabic women had freedom/rights
         2. Eventually adopted new ideologies
            1. Veiling from non-Arab converts
            2. Wealthy Muslims separated women in their households by placing in harems
               1. Special sections of house for all female members, young sons, servants

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Slave Systems and Slave Trade
   1. Slave Systems in the Americas
      1. Labor/Economic System
         1. Encomienda System – American Feudalism
            1. Peninsulares get land and # of slaves/native laborers
               1. In exchange, must protect them and convert them
            2. Not “intended” to be slave system, but essentially was
         2. Attempts at reform
            1. Treatment horrific – Christian missionaries appealed for reform
            2. Reduced strain on natives by bringing in Africans
            3. Replaced one oppressed group with another
            4. Both Africans and Natives ended up at bottom of social hierarchy
            5. Abolished in 1542
               1. Attempts by clergy to protest cruel treatment
               2. Government of Spain shifted to Madrid – new leadership
               3. Forced Spanish to bring in more African slaves
         3. African Slave Trade
            1. Existed before transatlantic voyages
               1. Portuguese captures slaves on coasts of Africa
               2. Africans had been raiding from ancient times
                  1. Put to work in gold and salt mines
                  2. Women often enslaved and traded
                     1. some become part of harem
                     2. Use as household servants
               3. trans-Saharan trade already brought slaves to Mediterranean world
               4. mid-15th century Portuguese opened up direct trade
            2. New World demand for labor
               1. Forced migration of millions
                  1. W. Africans already skilled in agriculture
               2. Changed history of New World
            3. Some African rulers cooperated with slave trade
               1. Portuguese brought into contact with powerful African kingdoms
                  1. Kongo, Benin, Mali and Songhay
                     1. Mali/Songhay enriched already by gold-salt trade
                     2. Kongo and Benin wanted to Christianize
                        1. 15th century rulers convert
               2. Characteristics of African kingdoms
                  1. own political and court traditions
                  2. monarchs rules with assistance of governing councils
                  3. artisans produced works in ivory, ebony and bronze
                  4. active trade in slaves, spices, ivory, textiles
                     1. slaves usually prisoners of war
                     2. captives of slave raids
            4. Europeans forced issue
               1. rounded up
               2. forced onto ships
               3. chained together
               4. Endured Middle Passage – part of triangular trade route
                  1. Hot, unventilated conditions – suffocation
                  2. Some starved
                  3. Killed in attempted revolts
               5. Taken to auction blocks
            5. Types of labor
               1. Sugar/coffee plantations
               2. Mines
            6. Slavery hereditary – children automatically slaves
            7. N. America vs. S. America Caribbean
               1. Families vs. Males
               2. Natural reproduction vs. existence based on trade
               3. Motivation for keeping alive differed
            8. Reached peak in 18th century
            9. Triangular trade
               1. European guns and other manufactured goods trade to Africans for slaves
               2. Slaves were transported from Africa to South America or West Indies
               3. Sugar, molasses and rum produced by slave labor traded to Europe for mfg goods
         4. Effects on Africa
            1. Guns and European glass became prized
               1. Often traded for human slaves
            2. Causes massive demographic shifts
               1. Brutal separation from family/culture
                  1. More males than females transported
                     1. Heavy work required on plantations
               2. Even if survived, absorbed into foreign culture that considered them property
                  1. Many Christianized, but…
                  2. Maintained parts of their language and culture
                  3. Unique cultural synthesis – African music, dress, and mannerisms mixed with Spanish and indigenous cultures in the Americas
            3. Reliance on importation of European technology
               1. Lessened technological development of African kingdoms