AP Pscyhology Study Guide

269467799	Freud	Latent (underlying meaning) and manifest (story line) meanings of dreams, memory repression
269467800	Ebbinghaus	Forgetting Curve (the decline of memory retention in time)
269467801	Watson -Rayner	Classical conditioning of emotions
269467802	Thorndike	law of effect
269467803	Pavlov	showed that animals, including humans, can be conditioned. Tested classical conditioning with dogs
269467804	Skinner	nuture; observable behavior; learning based on rewards
269467805	Loftus	misinformation effect; confabulation (honest lying); infantile amnesia
269467806	Wundt	first psych lab experiments
269467807	Whorf	language determines how we think - linguistic relativity
269467808	Chimsky	language aquisition; built in ability to learn grammar rules
269467809	Bandura	observational learning
269467810	Kolberg	moral development
269467811	Erikson	basic trust
269467812	Piaget	stages of development in sequence
269467813	Piaget's stages of development	1. Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) 2. Preoperational (2-6 years) 3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years) 4. Formal Operational (12 years +)
269467814	Biological	branch of psychology that includes basic research on brain chemistry
269467815	Evolutionary	branch of psychology that studies adaption factors and reporductive successes
269467816	Clinical	the branch of psychology that diagnoses and treats mental disorders
269467817	Developmental	branch of psychology that focuses on physical, mental and emotional changes in the life cycle
269467818	Contemporary psychology	the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
269467819	Psychiatrist	MD who studies psychology and can prescribe medication
269467820	psychologist	Ph.D who studies psychology, could be a therapist
269467821	Dependent	variable that changes as a result of a change in the independent variable
269467822	Independent	the variable that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
269467823	Control Group	Given a placebo or nothing to study the effect of the independent variable
269467824	Experimental Group	subjects in an experiment to whom the independent variable is administered
269467825	Correlation Studies	Studies that investigate whether a hypothetical relationship truly exists between two or more variables by statistical means (correlation does not show causation) Closer to 1 means higher rate of correlation
269467826	Skewed Scores	lopsided because of extremes or unusual values (outliers)
269467827	Illusionary Correlation	The Perception of a relationship where none exists.
269467828	Survey	research method in which information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions
269467829	Case Study	research method that involves an intensive investigation of one or more participants (long term)
269467830	Random Sampling	A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
269467831	Naturalistic Observation	observing and recording behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
269467832	Controlled Observation	A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under controlled conditions.
269467833	Participant Observation	a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed
269467834	Mean	Measure of central tendency with greatest consistency
269467835	Gestalt	An organized whole
269467836	Teratogens	substances that may harm a developing fetus
269467837	Secure Attachment	Characterized by partial dependence on a caregiver and by a willingness to explore one's environment; results from responsive parenting.
269467838	Insecure Attachment	Characterized complete dependence on a caregiver and extreme reluctance to explore one's environment; the result of unresponsive parenting.
269467839	Rooting reflex	When an infant is held close to the body, it will search for a nipple to feed on
269467840	Motor Neurons	neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. (produce movement)
269467841	Testosterone	Male sex hormone, found in both males and females
269467842	Temperament	a persons characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity (genetic predisposition to certain temperaments)
269467843	Conservation and Object Permanence	Tall Skinny glass of liquid and short fat glass hold the same amount of water, car goes behind the block, infant still looks for it (piaget)
269467844	Habituation	decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
269467845	Imprinting	infant animals attach during critical period, does not occur in humans
269467846	Visual Cliff Experiment	Tested depth perception in infants
269467847	It happens earlier	How menarche has changed in recent years
269467848	Social Clock	The appropriate societal time to get married or retire
269467849	Gender Roles	Expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each sex.
269467850	Crystallized Intelligence	general knowledge; continues to improve with age
269467851	Fluid Intelligence	Reasoning/problem solving skills; declines with age
269467852	Infantile Amnesia	the inability to remember events that occurred during one's early years (before age three)
269467853	Visual Dominance	the tendency for visual information to dominate information from the other senses during the process of perception
269467854	Proximity	group together stimuli that appear to be close together
269467855	Weber's Law	the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
269467856	Muller-Lyre illusion	Illusion only recoginzed correctly by industrialized society, we see corners on a regular basis
269467857	Perceptual Set	a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.(putting self in the circumstances)
269467858	Adaption	Adjusting to senses; smells, dark
269467859	Accomodation	adjust current schema to fit new information
269467860	Assimilation	adjust new information to fit current schema
269467861	Schema	A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
269467862	Individualistic Society	Society that values personalism and individual accomplishments, which often take precedence over group goals. These societies tend to emphasize ways in which individuals differ from each other.
269467863	Collective Society	Values social harmony and the good of society over the accomplishments of individuals
269467864	Selective Attention	the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect.
269467865	Belief Perserverance	clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
269467866	Sensation	the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
269467867	Kinesthesis	the sense of movement and body position
269467868	Olfactory Receptor Cells	receptor cells at top of nasal cavity (pick up smell)
269467869	Absolute threshold	the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
269467870	Phi phenomenon	an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
269467871	Iconic Memory	Memory based on an image
269467872	Echoic memory	Memory based on a sound
269467873	Semantic memory	Memory based on meaning
269467874	Method of Loci	a mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
269467875	Self-referencing effect	the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself
269467876	working memory	integration of new information with knowledge that is already stored in LTM
269467877	Cognitive Maps	mental representations of how a physical space is organized
269467878	State Dependent Memory	The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
269467879	Phoneme	the smallest unit of sound in a language
269467880	Morpheme	in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
269467881	Prototype	a mental image or best example of a category
269467882	Stages of Speech Development	1. Babbling 2. One Word 3. Telegraphic (two word) 4. Speech with Grammar Rules
269467883	Insight	The "aha" moment (Sultan the monkey)
269467884	Drug Tolerance	the tendency for larger doses of a drug to be required over time to achieve the same effect
269467885	Withdrawal	the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
269467886	Hallucinogens	psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
269467887	Sleeping Pills	medication that actually disrupts the sleep cycle
269467888	Unconditioned Response	an automatic response to a particular natural stimulus, such as salivation to meat
269467889	Unconditioned Stimulus	in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
269467890	Conditioned Stimulus	in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
269467891	Conditioned Response	in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
269467892	Schedules of Reinforcement	the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will continue; Four types of schedules: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval; interval means over a time and ratio means an act; partial reinforcement is on a variable schedule whereas continuous reinforcement is on a fixed schedule; variable schedules are more effective in learning
269467893	Observational Learning	A type of learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. (modeling)
269467894	Biological Predisposition to Learning	What we are able to learn from birth (humans -language; birds - flight)
269467895	Stress	Can be used as an asset, enhances learning. In large amounts can have a negative effect on health
269467896	Overjustification Effect	the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
269467897	Overconfidence	the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments
269467898	Discrimination	in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
269467899	Generalizations	when a person is conditioned to a certain stimulus all similar stimuli will elicit the same response
269467900	Spontaneous Recovery	the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
269467901	Extinction	a conditioning process in which the reinforcer is removed and a conditioned response becomes independent of the conditioned stimulus
269467902	Functional Fixedness	the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
269467903	Recall	A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
269467904	Recognition	a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
269467905	Relearning	A memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
269467906	Spacing Effect	the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
269467907	Hierarchy	Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
269467908	Framing	the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
269467909	Hindsight Bias	the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
269467910	Confirmation Bias	a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
269467911	Representative Heuristic	judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevent information
269467912	Availability Heuristic	estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
269467913	Serial Position Effect	Tendency for items at the beginning and end of a list to be learned better than items in the middle
269467914	Mnemonic Devices	procedures for associating new information with previously stored memories
269467915	Semantic Encoding	remembering something based on its meaning
269467916	Visual Encoding	remembering something based on an image that you bring to mind
269467917	Encoding	the processing of information into the memory system
269467918	Storage	The retention of encoded information over time.
269467919	Retrieval	The process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory
269467920	Retrieval Cues	Aids that help retrieval in memory
269467921	Heuristic	a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
269467922	Algorithm	a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier -- but also more error-prone -- use of heuristics
269467923	Explicit Memory	memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Stored in the hippocampus)
269467924	Implicit Memory	retention independent of conscious recollection (stored in the Cerebellum)
269467925	Retroactive Interference	when new learning disrupts the recall of previously-learned information
269467926	Proactive Interference	When previously learned information prevents recall of new information
269467927	Context Effects	The tendency to recover info more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the same info (ex: college classrooms and testing, navy seals and underwater divers; too many clues can lead to deja vu
269467928	Norms	rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members
269467929	Positive Reinforcement	increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
269467930	Negative Reinforcement	increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.) (Myers Psychology 8e p. 329)
269467931	Sympathetic Nervous System	the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
269467932	Somatic Nervous System	the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system
269467933	Autonomic Nervous System	The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
269467934	Reticular Formation	a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
269467935	Corpus Collosum	the large band of neural fibers connecting two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
269467936	Medulla	the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
269467937	Brainstem	The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
269467938	Hippocampus	a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
269467939	Frontal Lobe	The lobe at the front of the brain associated with movement, speech, and impulsive behavior.
269467940	Occipital Lobe	portion posterior to the parietal and temporal lobes, responsible for vision
269467941	Parietal Lobe	portion posterior to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch
269467942	Temporal Lobe	The portion of the cerebral cortex that is just above the ears and that is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.
269467943	Cerebellum	the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance
269467944	Thalamus	the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
269467945	Hypothalamus	a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
269467946	Endocrine System	the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
269467947	Pineal Gland	located in the center of the brain, functioning to secrete melatonin and serotonin
269467948	Pituitary Gland	the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
269467949	Adrenal Gland	An endocrine gland located adjacent to the kidney in mammals; composed of two glandular portions: an outer cortex, which responds to endocrine signals in reacting to stress and effecting salt and water balance, and a central medulla, which responds to nervous inputs resulting from stress.
269467950	Testes	The male gonads, which produce sperm and secrete male sex hormones.
269467951	Ovaries	located one on each side of the uterus in the female pelvis, functioning to secrete estrogen and progesterone
269467952	Seretonin	chemical messenger that is enhanced by medications such as prozac. has profound effects on elevating persons mood.
269467953	Lesioning	destroying a piece of the brain naturally or experimentally
269467954	CT Scan	A series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body ( detects the fluid filled regions of the brain)
269467955	ribosome	An organelle that functions in the synthesis of proteins
269467956	Cochlea	the snail-shaped tube (in the inner ear coiled around the modiolus) where sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses by the Organ of Corti
269467957	Semi-Circular Canals	tubes in the inner ear whose fluid, when shifted by head movements, stimulates nerve cells that tell the brain about those movements
269467958	Delta Sleep	The deep sleep of stage 4, indicated by large but slow delta brain waves.
269467959	Alpha Sleep	marked by feelings of being relaxed and drowsy, usually with the eyes closed.
269467960	Sleep Spindles	burst of rapid, rhythmic brainwave activity during Stage 2 sleep
269467961	Stage 2 Sleep	A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles"
269467962	Stage 3 Sleep	usually about 30 minutes; is transitional and leads to the fourth stage; brains starts to emit delta waves
269467963	Circadian Rhythm	the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
269467964	Narcolepsy	a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
269467965	Sleep Apnea	a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings
269467966	REM Sleep	rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
269467967	Lack of Sleep	impairs regulation of attention and emotion, lowers achievement, creates mood problems, and high-risk behavior
269467968	ESP	claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
269467969	Intrinsic Motivation	a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
269467970	Extrinsic Behavior	Desire to behave in certain ways to receive external rewards or avoid threatened punishment.