AP Biology Unit 1

88137966	bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system	buffering system that controls the pH of human blood
88137967	acid precipitation	rain, snow, or fog with a pH lower than 5.2; caused by sulfur and nitrous oxides, which are byproducts of burning fossil fuels
88137968	vitalism	belief in a life force outside the jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws; disproved with beginning of abiotic synthesis of organic compounds
88137969	urea	organic compound found in animals' urine: CO(NH2)2; first synthesized by Wöhler
88137970	mechanism	physical and chemical laws govern all natural phenomena; made popular because of Miller's abiotic synthesis experiment with primeval sea water
88137971	hydrocarbons	organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen; nonpolar bonds between C and H produce hydrophobic molecules; undergo reactions that produce lots of energy (like gasoline and fats)
88137972	cis	on the same side
88137973	trans	on the opposite side
88137974	enantiomers	isomers that are mirror images of each other; usually one is biologically active while the other is not
88137975	thalidomide	medication proscribed in the 50s and 60s; example of an enantiomer; one relieves morning sickness, the other causes severe birth defects
88137976	steroids	organic molecule characterized by a carbon skeleton in the form of four fused rings; vary in chemical groups attached to them
88137977	hydroxyl	functional group -OH; forms alcohols; polar and hydrophilic
88137978	carbonyl	functional group >CO; forms ketones (if in the middle of carbon skeleton) and aldehydes (if at the end); these two groups form sugars (aldoses and ketoses); hydrophilic
88137979	carboxyl	functional group -COOH; forms carboxylic acids; has acidic properties (charge of 1- in cells); hydrophilic
88137980	amino	functional group -NH2; forms amines, which form amino acids; has basic qualities (charge of 1+ in cells); hydrophilic
88137981	amino acids	compounds with both carboxyl and amino functional groups; at center is alpha carbon, partnered with H, -NH2, -R, -COOH
88137982	sulfhydryl	functional group -SH; forms thiols; when two react together (cross-link), they help stabilize proteins (e.g., in hair); hydrophilic
88137983	phosphate	functional group -OPO3^2-; forms organic phosphates, which are the backbone for phospholipids; hydrophilic; reacts with water, releasing energy
88137984	methyl	functional group -CH3; forms methylated compounds, which can affect expression of genes (e.g., testosterone vs. estradiol); hydrophobic
88137985	ATP	adenosine triphosphate; when reacts with water, becomes ADP: this reaction releases energy which can be used in a cell
88137986	macromolecules	huge, complex organic molecules
88137987	polymers	molecule made of a long chain of monomers; formed by condensation/dehydration, broken by hydrolysis
88150716	enzymes	macromolecules that facilitate chemical reactions (mostly proteins); speed up dehydration when forming polymers, and hydrolysis during digestion
88150717	carbohydrates	large biological compounds; include sugars (3 to 7 carbons long) and polymers of sugars; often form rings
88150718	monosaccharides	simple sugar; have structural formulas that are multiples of CH2O; source of cell nutrients and raw material for forming amino acids, fatty acids, etc.
88150719	glucose	most common monosaccharide; can form aldoses or ketoses, depending on location of carbonyl group (glucose: aldose; fructose: ketose)
88150720	glycosidic linkage	covalent bond between two monosaccharides that forms disaccharides using dehydration
88150721	maltose	glucose+glucose linked by glycosidic linkage; used in brewing beer
88150722	sucrose	glucose+fructose linked by glycosidic linkage; table sugar
88150723	lactose	glucose+galactose linked by glycosidic linkage; in milk
88150724	starch	polysaccharide stored in plants (made of alpha glucose) within plastids; hydrolyzed when energy needed
88161855	glycogen	polymer of glucose found in animals' liver and muscle cells; like amylopectin (branched plant starch), but more extensively branched; quickly used up if not supplemented by food intake
88161856	cellulose	structural polysaccharide; form plant cell walls; polymer of beta glucose; these long, unbranched chains form microfibrils
88161857	chitin	carbohydrate used by anthropods to form their exoskeletons; flexible when pure, but when exposed to calcium carbonate, hardens; also found in fungi (functions similarly to cellulose)
88161858	lipids	too small to be called macromolecules; hydrophobic, because they consist mostly of nonpolar hydrocarbons; three types: fats, phospholipids, steroids
88161859	fats	formed with glycerol (three carbons, each with -OH group) and fatty acids (16-18 carbons long, with carboxyl group at the end); formed by ester linkages
88161860	ester linkage	bond between hydroxyl and carboxyl; used when forming fats
88161861	triacylglycerol	3 fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule
88199776	phospholipids	make up cell membranes; has two fatty acids attached to glycerol; third hydroxyl in glycerol is attached to phosphate; form bilayers in water, because tail is hydrophobic and head is hydrophilic; this is how cell membranes are formed
88199777	cholesterol	component of cell membranes; help make steroids; synthesized in livers of vertebrates
88199778	polypeptides	polymers of amino acids; one or more makes a protein
88199779	peptide bond	covalent bond between amino group of one amino acid and carboxyl group of another; formed by dehydration; produces polypeptides
88199780	N-terminus	amino group at the end of a polypeptide
88199781	C-terminus	carboxyl group at the end of a polypeptide
88199782	protein	formed from polypeptides and folded according to the bonds, which depend on the sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptides; two kinds: globular and fibrous
88221731	primary structure	unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain of a protein
88221732	secondary structure	coiling (alpha helix) or folding (beta pleated sheet) that polypeptide chains take on as a result of the hydrogen bonds between the repeating amino acids in the polypeptide backbone
88221733	alpha helix	form of secondary structure in polypeptide chains; H-bond is present between every fourth amino acid
88221734	beta pleated sheet	form of secondary structure in poly peptide chains; two parts of the chain lie side by side, and H-bonds form between them; make up many globular proteins and some fibrous proteins
88221735	tertiary structure	overall shape of polypeptide; results from interactions between side chains of amino acids
88221736	hydrophobic interaction	contributes to formation of tertiary structure of proteins: amino acids with hydrophobic side chains are put at the core; held together by van der Waals interactions
88221737	disulfide bridges	two cysteine amino acids (have -SH groups on side chains) brought close together, and forms -S-S- bridge; keeps part of the polypeptide back bone together
88221738	quaternary structure	aggregation of polypeptides; happens when a protein is made up of more than one polypeptide
88221739	heme	nonpolypeptide component found in hemoglobin; iron atom that binds oxygen
88231383	denaturation	unraveling of a protein, because it is not in its natural environment, or because it is exposed to a chemical that disrupts H-bonds, ionic bonds and/or disulfide bridges; also excessive heat; sometimes can renature when denaturing agent is removed
88231384	chaperonins	protein molecules that assist in the proper folding on other proteins; protects polypeptide while it folds
88231385	X-ray crystallography	determines 3-D structures of proteins; first used for hemoglobin; NMR spectroscopy and bioinformetics also used to view/predict protein structures
88231386	nucleic acids	compounds including DNA and RNA
88231387	deoxyribonucleic acid	inherited genetic material; usually comprised of several hundred genes; each molecule of DNA makes up a chromosome; programs functions, but does not directly make cells function (proteins do that)
88270970	ribosomes	centers of protein synthesis; mRNA conveys genetic information from nucleus to cytoplasm, and ribosomes assemble polypeptides using that information
88270971	polynucleotides	nucleic acids (which exist as polymers); consist of nucleotides
88270972	nucleotide	make up polynucleotides; 3 parts: nitrogenous base, pentose, and phosphate group
88270973	nucleoside	part of nucleotide without phosphate group
88270974	pyrimidines	6-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms; cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U)
88270975	purines	6-membered ring fused to 5-membered ring; adenine (A) and guanine (G)
88270976	guanine, cytosine, adenine	members that make up nitrogenous bases in both DNA and RNA
88270977	uracil	found only in RNA
88270978	thymine	found only in DNA
88270979	ribose/deoxyribose	sugar connected to nitrogenous base in nucleotides of RNA/DNA; deoxyribose lacks an oxygen; have ' (prime) to distinguish them from nitrogenous bases
88270980	phosphodiester linkage	connects phosphate to the sugars of two nucleotides
88270981	antiparallel	arrangement of DNA polynucleotide strands in their double helix formation; strands held together by hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases