AP final

273170716	Immunity	Innate/Acquired-Passive/Active-Humoral/Cell-mediated
273170717	Antibody functions	Neutralization - Blocked sites, can't cause injury Agglutination - Clumping - IgM Precipation - Complement bonding, settle out of solution Opsonization - Abs coat foreign antigen to promote phag Complement fixation + Activation - lysis
273170718	Phagocyte	Engulfs into a phagosome - adds lysosome - phagolysosome
273170719	Macrophage	-Can be activated -Have antigen fragments for T-cell interactions
273170720	Fixed Macrophage	-Kupffer Cells - Liver, break down RBCs -Alveolar Macrophages - pulmonary macrophage
273170721	Neutrophil/Eosinophil	Diapedesis - Increased leukocyte movement towards damage site Chemotaxis - movement toward/away from chemicals Neutrophil - produce H2O2 and bleach, self-destructive Eosinophil - self-destructive, parasite phagocyte, weak
273706105	Mast cell	Allergy association Release histamines
273706106	Natural killer cell	Large lymphocyte referred to as a Third Population Cell (TPC) Detect surface protein change, lyse cell Innate immunity vs. tumors and virus cells Use Perforin to destroy cells
273706107	Inflammation	Prevents spread of damaging agent Hyperemia - increased blood flow Edema - accumulation of fluids under the skin Histamines released Defensins - broad spectrum antibiotics
273706108	Leukocytosis	Leukocyte mobilization, increased WBC count
273706109	Margination	Injured cells - chemical release - bone marrow released neutrophils neutrophils line capillaries - innate response a.k.a. Pavementing
273706110	Diapedesis	Increased leukocyte movement towards damage site
273706111	Chemotaxis	Movement away from chemicals/ to chemicals Monocytes follow neutrophils
273706112	Interferon	Released in response to pathogen presence Used for communication between immune cells Upregulation of MHC's Causes release of PKR
273706113	Protein Kinase R	PKR inhibits viral replication
273706114	Abscess	Collagen fibers enclose a sac of Neutrophils/Dead pathogens/ tissue cells = PUS
273706115	Antimicrobial Proteins	IFN - Interferon - Communication, release of PKR, upreg MHC PKR - Protein Kinase R - inhibits viral replication
273774712	Complement proteins	Plasma proteins attach - increase inflammation and promote lysis
273774713	Classical pathway	Ab binds and exposes C region C3 is cleaved into C3a + C3b C3b causes insertion of membrane attack complex (MAC) MAC causes a lesion, then lysis Calls macrophages - opsonization (Complement) Humoral immunity - Ab usage
273774714	MAC	Membrane attack complex Complement pathways
273774715	C	Reactive complement protein, formed in the liver in repsonse to CI binding results in C3, increases deposition of C3 in bact wall
273774716	Alternate Pathway	Complement does not require Ab MAC formed by other substances Nonspecific response
273774717	Specific Bodily Defenses	Specificity - eliminates targets by producing spec. lymph/Ab Diversity - can recognize millions of antigens Self/Nonself recognition - Autoimmune Diseases Memory
273774718	IgM / IgD	IgM - Agglutination, also antigen receptors on B-cells IgD - antigen receptor on B-cell, unknown usage
273774719	IgA / IgE	IgA - found in secretions - milk/tears IgE - activation of mast cells, parasite protection
273774720	IgG	Primary circulating antibody
273774721	MHC	1 - found on all nucleated cells, aside from RBCs Cytotoxic T cell 2 - macrophages and B lymphocytes also foreign antigens Helper T cell
273774722	Helper T cell	CD4 receptor Recognize MHC 2 Attach to a foreign antigen on a macrophage
273774723	Adaptive Immune System	ID - kill, remember
273774724	Cytotoxic T cell	CD8 receptor Recognize MHC 1 Directly attaches to the targeted cell Needs IL2 to attack
273774725	B cell	Humoral Immunity Produced in the bone marrow or Bursa of Fabricious
273774726	T cell	Cell-mediated immunity Produced in the Thymus
273774727	T-cell selection	In contact with self MHC in the Thymus, if they recognize it - retained, if not Apoptosis
273774728	Apoptosis	Programmed cell death
273774729	B-cell selection	Anergy - lack of reaction by the body's defenses to foreign antigens Self-reactive B-cells are inactivated B-cells should not recognize MHC1, if they do, DIE
273774730	Clonal Deletion	When B/T cells are deactivated for expressing response to self-antigens
273774731	Antigen-presenting cell	Cells which engulf antigens and present fragments on surface Dendritic cells Langerhans cells Macrophages Activated B-cells
273774732	Dendritic Cell	Found in CT, secrete soluble proteins Antigen-presenting cell Activate T-cells
273774733	Langerhans cell	Found in skin epidermis Antigen-presenting cell
273774734	Macrophage	Secrete soluble proteins Antigen-presenting cell Activate T-cells
273774735	Activated B-cell	Antigen-presenting cell
273774736	CAM	Cell adhesion molecules found on endothelial cells Cause lymphocytes to leave the system Used in margination to line the endothelial cells with neutrophils
273774737	Humoral Immunity Response	Step 1: Antigen binds to B-cell receptor, w/ help from macrophages and HT cells Step 2: Clonal selection and differentiation of B cells Ag binds to cells surface - internalized B cells grow and multiply (all identical) most progeny^ become Plasma cells and begin producing Ab
273881475	Immunological Memory	1: Prime immune response 3-6 day lag to produce plasma cells peaks at ~10 days 2. Secondary immune response peaks much quicker the second time
273881476	Active acquired immunity	Post-exposure Vaccinations
273881477	Passive acquired immunity	Artificial or natural transfer of immune system components from another individual Colostrum
273881478	Immunoglobulins	Antibodies Make up the gammaglobulin portion of blood soluble proteins interact w/ epitope on antigens
273881479	Epitope	Small, restricted site on an antigen Induces immune response through T cell or Ab binding
273881480	Ab components (structure)	4 polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bridge 2 light chains, 2 heavy Complement binding site Macrophage binding site Antigen binding site
273881481	What kills the antigen?	Nonspecific defenses and activated T-cells destroy antigens
273881482	Monoclonal antibodies	Fuse tumor cell and B lymphocytes to form Hybridomas Hybridomas - single type of antibody Can be used for - passive immunity, clinical testing, treating disease
273881483	Hybridoma	Monoclonal antibody Tumor cell + B lymphocyte
273881484	Cell-mediated response	INSIDE cell 2 major populations present: CD4 - Helper T cells (assist other T/B cells) CD8 - Cytotoxic T cells, destroy other cells
273881485	T (DH)	Delayed Hypersensitivity T cell
273881486	T(S)	Suppressor T cell Can help maintain tolerance to self-antigens Helps keep immune system in check
273881487	Antigen recognition	T-cells NOT activated by free antigens MUST be antigenic epitopes on own body's cells MUST recognize foreign and self MHCs
273881488	MHC 1	Found on all nucleated cells CD8 recognize Endogenous antigens
273881489	MHC 2	Found on mature B cells, some T cells, and APCS (Antigen presenting cells) CD4 recognize Exogenous antigens - after broken down in a phagolysosome
273881490	Helper T-cells	Activate B cells to secrete Ab Activate T cells Cytokines must be present to activate other lymphocytes
273881491	MHC 2	T(h) binding causes macrophages to release IKN-1 Helper T cells to release Interleukin-2 - causes T(h) to grow and divide IK2^ TH^ IK2 helps to mediate immune recognition
273881492	Tumor necrosis factor	T-cell produced cytokine that causes apoptosis
273881493	IFN	T-cell produced cytokine that enhances abilities of macrophages
273881494	Interleukin-2	Stimulates B-cells to produce Ab
273881495	T-cell independent antigens	Can stimulate B-cells w/o help from HT cells weak response
273881496	T-cell dependent antigens	Require T-helper cells more potent than independent antigens
274013766	Lethal hit sequence	1. Cyt T cells release perforin and granzymes(cause apoptosis) - form lesion 2. w/ Ca present, perforin forms a transmembrane hole 3. Granzymes enter cell and degrade contents 4. Cyt T cells release lymphotoxin
274013767	Other T cells	Suppressor T cells Gamma Delta T cells
274013768	Suppressor T cell	Suppress activity of T/B cells
274013769	Gamma Delta T cells	Found in Intestine Triggered when their T-cell antigen receptors are activated Similar to NK cells
274013770	Autoimmune Diseases	Lupus/Rheumatoid Arthritis Insulin-dependent diabetes Rheumatic fever Graves disease MS
274013771	Allergy types	1. Hypersensitivities (Anaphylaxis) 2. Cytotoxic reaction 3. Immune complex hypersensitivity disease 4. Cell-mediated immune pathology
274013772	Anaphylaxis	Type 1 allergic reaction First contact with allergen, no reaction IgE mediated allergy Mast cell and Basophil activation Histamines, Prostaglandins, etc. released
274013773	Symptoms of allergies	Respiratory - Bronchial spasms, laryngeal edema GI - nausea, Diarrhea, cramps, vomiting Circ system - intestinal, hepatic vasodilation, hypotension (low BP) Skin - hives Treatment: Epinephrine to open bronchii
274013774	Lupus/ Rheumatoid Arthritis	Systemic, constant inflammation of various parts of the body
274013775	Graves Disease	Thyroid problems, autoantibodies
274013776	Rheumatic Fever	Antibody cross-reactivity (heart, skin, joints, brain)
274013777	MS	Immune system attacks the myelin sheathes around axons
274013778	Insulin-dependent diabetes	Immune cells vs. pancreas
274013779	Type 2 allergic reaction	Cytotoxic reaction Ab binds to antigens on body cells and stims phagocytosis and complement-mediated lysis ex. mismatched blood transfusions
274035757	Immune complex hypersensitivity disease	Type 3 allergic reaction long term antigen exposure and response Ab-antigen complexes accumulate- stim. intense inflammation Activate complement cascade - attract neutrophils - lysosomal enzyme release varied symptoms
274035758	Cell-mediated Immune Pathology	Type 4 allergic reaction Persistent activation of cell-mediated immunity Extensive cytotoxicity Granuloma formation Contact hypersensitivity (Poison oak, ivy)
274035759	Granuloma	A collection of immune cells that have "walled off," a foreign substance or antigen
274035760	Blood group immunology	Type A blood has A antigens B has B antigens and AntiA antigens Type O has neither A nor B antigens
274035761	Rh factor	Rh negative mother can develop antibodies against Rh positive fetus
274035762	Tissue grafts	MHC responsible for tissue rejection Cause cell-mediated immune response
274809706	Splanchnic	a.k.a. visceral
274809707	Hepatic portal circulation	Blood flow directed to the liver
274809708	4 layers of GI tract	1. Mucosa (3 sublayers) 2. Submucosa - Peyer's patches, Brunner's glands 3. Muscularis Externa - circ musc layer, sphincters, long mus 4. Serosa - (visceral peritoneum)
274809709	Mucosa (3 sublayers)	1. Epithelium - goblet cells, simp, colum epithelial 2. Lamina Propria - loose areolar CT, contains (MALT) 3. Musculara mucosa - sm. muscle, mucosa movement
274809710	MALT	Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
274809711	Submucosa	Dense CT
274809712	Muscularis externa	Circular muscle layer, sphincters, longitudinal muscle
274809713	Serosa	Visceral peritoneum
274809714	Nerve plexuses	Submucosal NP - controls activity of glands and sm. musc Myenteric plexus - b/w circ and long muscle Enteric nervous system
274809715	Buccal cavity	Mouth
274809716	Nasopharynx	Soft palate closes ____ when swallowing
274809717	Tongue	Taste buds Serous/mucous glands Forms bolus
274809718	Extrinsic Salivary glands	Parotid- near ear, biggest Submandibular Sublingual
274809719	Stomach regions (4)	Cardiac Fundus Corpus Pylorus
274809720	Pyloric region components	Pyloric antrum Pyloric canal Pyloric sphincter
274809721	Obliques (stomach)	Muscle fibers in stomach Circular longitudinal transverse
274809722	Enteroendocrine cells	Produce - serotonin gastrin histamine endorphins
274809723	Duodenum	Hepatopancreatic ampulla - Common bile duct + panc duct HPA - empties into sphincter of oddi
274809724	Sphincter of Oddi	Controls the release of bile into the duodenum Hepatopancreatic ampulla empties into ____
274809725	Ileum	Slows food due to increased % of segmental contractions
274809726	Plicae circulares	Mucosal folds in the SI
274809727	Brush border	Microvilli found in SI + kidney
274809728	Central lacteal	Found in villi in SI absorbs broken down fats
274809729	Crypts of Lieberkuhn	In folds of SI contain Paneth Cells - antimicrobial secretions - lysozyme
274809730	Paneth cell	Found in SI in Crypts of Lieberkuhn secrete antimicrobial compounds - lysozyme
274809731	Submucosa	Peyer's patches - macrophages located in SI Brunner's glands - secrete mucous
274809732	Liver lobule	Functional unit of the liver
274809733	Portal triad	Hepatic artery Hepatic portal vein Bile duct
274809734	Hepatic plates	Process nutrients Store fat-soluble vitamins Detoxify
274809735	Hepatitis / Cirrhosis	Liver infection / scarring of the liver
274809736	Cystic duct	Gall bladder empties bile into the GI via ___
274809737	Pancreatic function	Acini cells located in Pancreas secrete zymogens - enzyme precursor CCK stimulates enzyme release
274809738	Zymogen	Inactive enzyme precursor, activated by HCL in lysosomes: pepsinogen trypsinogen
274844807	Large Intestine (parts)	Ascending Descending Transverse Sigmoid colon
274844808	Haustra	Segments on LI no villi or plicae circulares
274844809	Appendix	MALT component
274844810	GI tract motility	Prehension Mastication Deglutition Egestion Regurgitation
274844811	Deglutition / Egestion	Swallowing / Pooping
274844812	Caudoesophageal sphincter	Vomiting reflex
274844813	Receptive relaxation	Stomach Nitric Oxide - plays a part Enterogastric reflex - holds food, slows perist. low pH = diarrhea Enterogastrone reflex - senses 12-18carbons, releases Cholecystokinin to help digest
274844814	Enterogastric reflex	Slows peristalsis Can be caused by low pH = diarrhea
274844815	Enterogastrone reflex	Senses 12-18 carbons, releases Cholecystokinin to help digest
274844816	Electrical activity in GI tract	Two types: slow waves, spike
274844817	Cells of Cajal	pacemaker cells in longitudinal sm. muscle creates the basal contraction rate
274844818	Intracellular vs. Extracellular pH	Intra: 6.5 Extra: .8 caused by HCl from parietal cells
274844819	Chief cells	pepsinogen (zymogen) ^ + HCl = pepsin
274844820	Gastric secretion phases	Cephalic: neural via the vagus nerve Gastric: Gastrin release Intestinal: Secretin can cause pepsinogen secretion Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) stops acid release
274844821	Cholecystokinin	Helps to digest 12-18carbons stimulates enzyme release from pancreas controls bile release
274844822	Buffers in GI tract	Bicarbonate balances H+ loss stimulated by secretin
274844823	Bile	Controlled by Cholecystokinin CCK
274844824	Carbohydrate (Dig/Abs)	Monosaccarides are absorbed Starch digestion begins in mouth w/ amylase Pancreatic amylase 90% absorbed in first 2/3 of tract Glucose and galactose coupled with Na+ Atransport Mucosal digestion: Dextrinase, glucoamylase, maltase, etc.
274844825	Amylase	Starch digestion
274844826	What is coupled with Na+ transport in the GI tract?	Glucose + Galactose
274844827	Protein (Dig/Abs)	Pepsin helps break down protein (Pepsin is inactivated in the Duodenum) Pepsin cleaves proteins between tyrosine \| phenylalanine Brush border enzymes and pancreatic enzymes create small, ABSORBABLE, peptides, AAs, di-tri peptides ^^ absorbed like sugars In young animals - prior to closure of enterocytes can absorb proteins (Abs!) through colostrum
274844828	Enterocyte	a.k.a. Intestinal absorptive cell Stay open for a short time in newborns - absorb proteins (Abs!) Colostrum absorb monoglycerides in lipid digestion
274844829	Lipid (Dig/Abs)	SI: sole site of digestion Bile salts emulsify fat Lipase breaks tri into monoglycerides enterocytes absorb monos and reesterify them into tri Chylomicrons transport fats around the body (thru lymph sys)
274844830	Bile salts	found in SI emulsify fats
274844831	Chylomicron	ring structure that moves fats around the body through the lymphatic system
274844832	Nucleic Acid (Dig/Abs)	Ribonuclease and Deoxynuclease Absorbed in SI
274844833	Ribonuclease / Deoxyribonuclease	Break down their respective nucleic acids
274844834	Vitamins (Dig/Abs)	Fat soluble vitamins - absorbed in SI along w/ fats Water soluble vitamins - absorbed in SI (B12 vitamin requires intrinsic factor, absorbed in ileum)
274844835	B12 vitamin	Water-soluble vitamin, requires intrinsic factor absorbed in ileum
274888332	Oxidation- reduction reactions	Crucial in metabolic processes
274888333	Oxidation (Nut/Met)	Yields ATP
274888334	Oxidase	Catalyzes the transfer of Oxygen
274888335	Dehydrogenase	Removal of H+, leaving CO2
274888336	Coenzymes of oxidation	H+ acceptors NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) FAD (flavine adenine dinucleotide)
274888337	NAD+ / FAD	Oxidation coenzymes
274888338	ATP synthesis	Uses cellular respiration energy for: substrate level phosphorylation or oxidative phosphorylation
274888339	Substrate level phosphorylation	Occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondrial matrix Phosphate goes from substrate -> ADP
274888340	Oxidative phosphorylation	More important than sub phos chemiosmotic process H+ pumped into intermembrane mitoch space
274888341	Carbohydrate -> ___	Glucose Entry into cell via fac. diff. modulated by insulin trapped within cell by hexokinase irreversible reaction^, helps maintain glucose gradient
274888342	Oxidation of glucose via -> ___	Glycolysis Krebs Cycle Electron Transport Chain and oxidative phosphorylation
274888343	Glycolysis	10 steps glucose -> 2 pyruvic acid molecules Yields 2 ATP/glucose occurs in cytosol ANAEROBIC
274927533	Critical Glycolysis enzymes	Hexokinase - traps glucose in cell Phosphofructokinase - (PFK) - catalyzes the rate-determining reaction. ATP inhibits, AMP stims lactate dehydrogenase - oxidizes NAD+, so glycolysis can continue. MUST HAVE if no oxygen present
274927534	PFK	Phosphofructokinase - catalyzes the rate of glycolysis ATP inhibits AMP stimulates
274927535	Glycolysis equation	Glucose + 2NAD+ + 2ADP + 2Pi <-> 2NADH + 2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2H2O + 4H+
274927536	Metabolism in the Liver	In absence of Oxygen, lactic acid -> glucose -Energy source -Stored as glycogen ^ a.k.a. glycogenesis / glycogenolysis
274927537	Lactic acid	Converted to glucose in the absence of oxygen
274927538	Gluconeogenesis	Glucose synthesis from other nutrient sources - Propionic acid synthesized into glucose in ruminants
274927539	Propionic acid	Synthesized into glucose in ruminants
274927540	Krebs cycle	Oxidation Decarboxylation - pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction w/ coA to form Actetyl coenzymeA *essentially Pyruvate -> ACOa -> ATP
274927541	Electric Transport Chain	Aerobic respiration H combined with O2 ^ energy used to phosphorylate ADP cristae - electron transporters molecules involved: Flavoprotein (FMN) Coenzyme Q cytochromes NADH, FADH2 -> reduced to oxidized form -> highly exergonic
274927542	Cristae	Electron transporters for E. Transport Chain
274927543	ATP harvest	to pyruvate -> 2 ATP pyruvate through Krebs cycle -> 2ATP E transport chain -> 34 ATP
274927544	Glycogenesis + Glycogenolysis	When sufficient energy is reached energy - fat Glucose-6-P + mutase -> Glucose 1-P
274927545	Mutase	Enzyme required for glycogenesis Glucose-6-P + mutase -> Glucose 1-P
274927546	Gluconeogenesis	Forming sugar from non-carb sources
274927547	Lipid Metabolism	Oxidation of glycerol and fatty acids - 1 glycerol converted to 18ATP Beta Oxidation: fatty acids -> 2-carbon acetic acid fragments (beta carbon is oxidized) Acetic acid fuses to CoenzymeA -> Krebs Cycle
274927548	Lipogenesis and Lipolysis	Triglyceride synthesis occurs when ATP and glucose levels are high AcetylCoA molecules condensed to form fatty acids Glyceraldehyde phosphate converted to form glycerol
274927549	Lipolysis	Breaking stored fats into glycerol and fatty acids Liver, card muscle, resting skel muscle, prefer fat Before kreb cycle -> AcetylCoA combines w/ oxaloacetate insufficient oxaloacetyl CoA -> ketone bodies (ketogenesis)
274927550	Ketogenesis	Fatty acid breaks down to form Ketone bodies when oxaloacetylCoA is short
274927551	Renal sinus	Renal pelvis, calyces, Bvessels, nerves, fat
274927552	3 external kidney layers	Renal capsule Adipose capsule Renal fascia
274927553	3 internal kidney layers	Cortex Medulla Pelvis
274927554	Afferent vs. Efferent Arterioles	Afferent -> to kidneys Efferent -> from
274927555	Peritubular capillaries	Supply blood to the nephron via the PCT and DCT
274927556	Vasa Recta	Capillary beds that reside in the medulla (branch of the Efferent arterioles) parallel to the loop of henle
274927557	Nephron	(85% in cortex) Glomerulus and Renal tubule Renal corpuscle: Glomerulus + Bowman's capsule
274927558	Bowman's capsule	Encloses glomerulus First step of filtration
274927559	Podocyte	Part of nephron long extensions, cover glomerulus capillaries
274927560	Renin	Increases H2O and NaCl absorption in the kidneys
274927561	Juxtaglomerular apparatus	DCT lies against arterioles (Aff and Eff)
274927562	Juxtaglomerular cell	Enlarged, sm. muscle, line arterioles mechanoreceptors secrete renin near Macula Densa cells (osmoreceptors)
274927563	Macula Densa cell	Osmoreceptor lie near juxtaglomerular cells
274927564	Kidney physiology	1% BW - 20-25% Oxygen usage
274927565	Net Filtration Pressure	Glomerular hydrostatic pressure: main driving force ^ opposed by colloid osmotic pressure and capsular hydrostatic pressure
274927566	Glomerular hydrostatic pressure	Main driving force of net filtration
274927567	Kidney filtration pressures	Glomerular hydrostatic vs. Colloid osmotic Capsular hydrostatic
274927568	Glomerular filtration rate	Directly proportional to NFP (normally constant)
274927569	Renal Auto-regulation	Kept constant by altering Afferent/Efferent arteriole tones
274927570	Sympathetic control of filtration	Constriction of afferent arterioles affects FR Causes JG cells to secrete renin Low BP -> upregulation of renin
274927571	Other factors controlling GFR	Vasodilation: NO, PG, Kallikrein releases bradykinin Vasoconstriction: endothelin, TXA2
274927572	Sodium Reabsorption	Passive into cell (carrier-mediated, fac. diffusion) Passively enters peritubular capillarise
274927573	Water Reabsorption	Na+ and Cl- entering cells causes water to enter into tubule cell.
274927574	Solvent drag	When water moves, it drags solutes into tubules
274927575	Secondary Active Transport	Na+ - K+ pump creates gradient - helps transport glucose, AAs, lactate, vitamins
274938474	PCT	Most active reabsorption site glucose, lactate, AAs 65% of Na+ is cotransported with^ H2O, HCO3, Cl-, K+ absorbed URIC ACID absorbed
274938475	Loop of Henle	Water can leave Descending, but NOT Ascending limb. Na+, water, Cl-, K+ absorbed in thin segment Thick is impermeable to water and urea Reabsorbs K+, Cl-, Na+ More dilute Ascending
274938476	Thick segment (LoH)	impermeable to water and urea reabsorbs K+, Cl-, and Na+
274938477	Thin segment (LoH)	Water can leave Descending, NOT ascending limb.
274938478	DCT	absorbs NA+, Cl-, H20 secretes K+ and H+ absorption of H2O reliant on Anti diuretic hormone (ADH) absorption of Na+ controlled by Aldosterone
274938479	ADH	Antidiuretic hormone regulates absorption of H2O in DCT
274938480	Aldosterone	regulates absorption of Na+ Due to: low BP, low plasma Na+, inc K+ Increases Na+ absorption FROM DCT
274938481	ANP	Atrial natriuretic peptide High BP causes release Decreases Na+ absorption from DCT
274938482	Parathyroid hormone	Regulates Ca++ absorption
274938483	Collecting Duct	Permeable to water, not NaCl Loses water to hyperosmotic interstitial fluid Bottom of duct is permeable to urea
274938484	Tubular secretion	H, K, ammonium, creatinine
274938485	Urine concentration regulation	Osmotic concentration from cortex to medulla ^^^inc Loop of Henle <> Vasa Recta countercurrent systems
274938486	Renal clearance	Vol of plasma from which a particular substance is completely cleared by kidneys
274938487	Inulin	Determines GFR not reabsorbed or secreted RC rate inulin = GFR RC value for inulin< insulin, then it is reabsorbed
274938488	Alkalosis	Greater than 7.45 pH
274938489	Acidosis	Less than 7.35 pH