Campbel Biology 9th: Chapters 1 through 5 w/ lecture additions Flashcards

additions from bio 241 lecture

900341373	Macromolecules	Huge molecules: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids.
900341374	Polymer	A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.
900341375	Monomers	The repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer.
900341376	Enzymes	Specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions.
900341377	Dehydration Reaction	A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.
900341378	Hydrolysis	A chemical reaction that involves splitting a compound into two or more other compounds through the addition of water.
900341379	Carbohydrates	Include both sugars and polymers of sugars. Made up of a 1:2:1 ratio of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen (CH2O)n Some Functions: Quick fuel Short-term energy storage Structure of organisms Cell to cell recognition
900341380	Monosaccharide	The simplest carbohydrate.
900341381	Trioses	3-carbon sugars (C₃H₆O₃)
900341382	Pentoses	5-carbon sugars (C₅H₁₀O₅)
900341383	Glucose	Aldose The body's blood sugar; a simple form of carbohydrate.
900341384	Galactose	Aldose A simple sugar found in lactose.
900341385	Fructose	Ketose A simple sugar found in honey and in many ripe fruits.
900341386	Hexoses	6-carbon sugars (C₆H₁₂O₆)
900341387	Disaccharide	Two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage. (sucrose = glucose + fructose)
900341388	Glycosidic Linkage	A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.
900341389	Polysaccharide	A macromolecule formed from thousands of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages.
900341390	Starch	A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose. Formed from glucose monomers joined by 1-4 linkages. Two forms: amylose and amylopectin.
900341391	Amylose	The simplest form of starch; unbranched.
900341392	Amylopectin	A more complex, branched form of starch with 1-6 linkages at branch points.
900341393	Maltose	Glucose + Galactose
900341394	Sucrose	Glucose + Fructose
900341395	Glycogen	An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
900341396	Cellulose	A structural polysaccharide that is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells. Never branched.
900341397	α Glucose	Forms starch.
900341398	β glucose	Forms cellulose.
900341399	Chitin	A structural carbohydrate used by arthropods to build their exoskeletons.
900341400	Lipid	Nonpolar, insoluble macromolecule made mainly from carbon and hydrogen atoms; includes fats, phospholipids, and steroids. Some Functions: Energy Storage Found in the plasma membrane Component of steroid hormones
900341402	Fat	Also called triacylglycerol. Constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. Purpose: storage, cushioning, insulation.
900341407	Glycerol	An alcohol found in fats; each of its three carbons bears a hydroxyl group.
900341410	Fatty Acid	A long carbon chain carboxylic acid. vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form fat.
900341411	Ester Linkage	A bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group.
900341417	Saturated Fatty Acid	A fatty acid in which all carbons are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton.
900341418	Unsaturated Fatty Acid	A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds. Nearly all double bonds in natural fatty acids are cis bonds, which cause a kink in the chain.
900341419	Trans Fats	Unsaturated fats with trans double bonds.
900341420	Phospholipids	Essential lipds that form cell membranes. Has two fatty acids and one phosphate group attached to a glycerol. When added to water, form double-layered structures called "bilayers."
900341421	Steroids	Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. Distinguished by the particular chemical groups attached.
900341422	Cholesterol	A common component of animal cell membranes and the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized. Synthesized in the liver.
900341423	Catalysts	Chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction.
900341424	Polypeptides	Polymers of amino acids.
900341425	Protein	A biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides, each folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure.
900341426	Enzymatic Proteins	Function: selective acceleration of chemical reactions.
900341427	Storage Proteins	Function: storage of amino acids (ex - casein in milk, ovalbumin in egg whites)
900341428	Hormonal Proteins	Function: coordination of an organism's activities. (ex - insulin causes other tissues to take up glucose)
900341429	Contractile and Motor Proteins	Function: movement. Responsible for undulations of cilia and flagella, contraction of muscles.
900341430	Defensive Proteins	Function: protection against disease. (ex - antibodies)
900341431	Transport Proteins	Function: transport of substances (ex - transport of oxygen by hemoglobin in blood, transport of molecules across cell membranes)
900341432	Receptor Proteins	Function: response of cell to chemical stimuli (ex - nerve cell receptors detect signaling molecules)
900341433	Structural Proteins	Function: support (ex - keratin in hair, collagen and elastin in connective tissue)
900341434	Amino Acid	An organic molecule possessing both an amino group and a carboxyl group. There are 20 types.
900341435	Peptide Bond	The covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.
900341436	Primary Structure	Linear chain of amino acids.
900341437	Secondary Structure	Regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone. Two types: α helix (hair) and β sheet (silk).
900341438	Tertiary Structure	Three-dimentional shape stabilized by interactions between side chains. Reinforced by disulfide bridges.
900341439	Hydrophobic Interaction	Water surrounding the protein causes nonpolar side chains to cluster at the core of the protein.
900341440	Disulfide Bridges	Form where two cysteine monomers, which have sulfhydryl groups, are brought close together by the folding of the protein. The sulfur of one cysteine bonds to the sulfur of the second.
900341441	Quaternary Structure	Association of multiple polypeptides, forming a functional protein.
900341442	Sickle-cell Disease	An inherited blood disorder caused by the substitution of one amino acid (valine) for the normal one (glutamic acid) at a particular position in the primary structure of hemoglobin.
900341443	Denaturation	Loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat, transfer from an aqueous environment to a nonpolar solvent, or chemicals that disrupt the hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and disulfide bridges that maintain a protein's shape.
900341444	Chaperonins	Protein molecules that assist in the proper folding of other proteins, but do not specify the final structure of a polypeptide.
900341445	X-ray Crystallography	Used to determine the 3-D structure of proteins.
900341446	Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)	A method for analyzing protein structure that does not require protein crystallization.
900341447	Bioinformatics	A newer approach that predicts the 3-D structure of polypeptides from their amino acid sequences.
900341448	Peptidoglycan	A protein-carbohydrate compound that makes the cell walls of bacteria rigid.
900341449	Organic Chemistry	The study of carbon compounds.
900341450	Vitalism	The belief in a life force outside the jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws. (obsolete)
900341451	Mechanism	The view that physical and chemical laws govern all natural phenomena, including the processes of life.
900341452	Methane	CH₄
900341453	Ethane	C₂H₆
900341454	Ethene	C₂H₄
900341455	Length	One way that carbon skeletons can vary.
900341456	Branching	One way that carbon skeletons can vary.
900341457	Double Bond Position	One way that carbon skeletons can vary.
900341458	Presence of Rings	One way that carbon skeletons can vary.
900341459	Hydrocarbons	Organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen.
900341460	Isomers	Compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties.
900341461	Structural Isomers	Differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms. Carbons must be single-bonded.
900341462	Cis-Trans Isomers	Formerly called geometric isomers. Carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds.
900341463	Cis Isomer
900341464	Trans Isomer
900341465	Enantiomers	Isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon. Two types: L (levo) and D (dextro).
900341466	Asymmetric/Chiral Carbon	A carbon that is attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms.
900341467	Functional Groups	Chemical groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions.
900341468	Hydroxyl	Polar; forms H-bonds with water molecules, helping dissolve organic compounds. Compound: alcohols.
900341469	Alcohol
900341470	Carbonyl	>CO Compound: ketones, aldehydes
900341471	Ketone	If the carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton.
900341472	Aldehyde	If the carbonyl group is at the end of the skeleton.
900341473	Carboxyl	-COOH Acts as an acid: can donate an H⁺ because the covalent bond between O and H is so polar. Compound: carboxylic/organic acid.
900341474	Carboxylic Acid	Can donate an H⁺ because the covalent bond between O and H is so polar.
900341475	Amino	-NH₂ Acts as a base; can pick up H⁺ from the surrounding solution. Compound: Amine
900341476	Amine	Acts as a base; can pick up H⁺ from the surrounding solution.
900341477	Sulfhydryl	-SH Two sulfhydryl groups can react to form a disulfide bridge that stabilizes protein structure (tertiary structure). Compound: Thiol
900341478	Cysteine	An important sulfur-containing amino acid. Two sulfhydryl groups can react to form a disulfide bridge that stabilizes protein structure (tertiary structure).
900341479	Phosphate	-OPO₃²⁻ Contributes negative charge to the molecule (2- at the end, 1- internally)
900341480	Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)	When three phosphates are present, one may split off to react with water. Becomes adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
900341481	Methyl	-CH3 Affects gene expression, sex hormones.
900341482	Acid	A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
900341483	Base	A substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
900341484	Buffer	A solution that contains a weak acid and its corresponding base. A buffer minimizes changes in pH when acids or bases are added to the solution.
900341485	Calorie	The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C; also the amount of heat energy that 1 g of water releases when it cools by 1°C. The Calorie (with a capital C), usually used to indicate the energy content of food, is a kilocalorie.
900341486	Celsius Scale	A temperature scale (°C) equal to 5/9(°F - 32) that measures the freezing point of water at 0°C and the boiling point of water at 100°C.
900341487	Cohesion	The linking together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bonds.
900341488	Colloid	A mixture made up of a liquid and particles that (because of their large size) remain suspended rather than dissolved in that liquid.
900341490	Evaporative Cooling	The process in which the surface of an object becomes cooler during evaporation, a result of the molecules with the greatest kinetic energy changing from the liquid to the gaseous state.
900341493	Heat	The total amount of kinetic energy due to the random motion of atoms or molecules in a body of matter; also called thermal energy. Heat is energy in its most random form.
900341494	Joule	A unit of energy: 1 J = 0.239 cal; 1 cal = 4.184 J.
900341496	Kinetic Energy	The energy associated with the relative motion of objects. Moving matter can perform work by imparting motion to other matter.
900341499	Molarity	A common measure of solute concentration, referring to the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
900341501	Mole	The number of grams of a substance that equals its molecular weight in daltons and contains Avogadro's number of molecules.
900341503	Molecular Mass	The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule; sometimes called molecular weight.
900341504	Ocean Acidification	Decreasing pH of ocean waters due to absorption of excess atmospheric CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels.
900341506	Polar Covalent Bond	A covalent bond between atoms that differ in electronegativity. The shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making it slightly negative and the other atom slightly positive.
900341508	Solute	A substance that is dissolved in a solution.
900341510	Solution	A liquid that is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
900341512	Solvent	The dissolving agent of a solution. Water is the most versatile solvent known.
900341514	Specific Heat	The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of a substance to change its temperature by 1°C.
900341515	Surface Tension	A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. Water has a high surface tension because of the hydrogen bonding of surface molecules.
900341517	Temperature	A measure of the intensity of heat in degrees, reflecting the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
900341519	Heat of Vaporization	The amount of energy required for the liquid at its boiling point to become a gas.
900341522	Hydrophilic	Having a strong affinity for water.
900341524	Hydrophobic	Lacking affinity for water.
900341525	pH	A measure of hydrogen ion concentration equal to -log [H+] and ranging in value from 0 to 14.
900341527	Buffer	A solution that is resistant to large changes in pH
900341529	Acid Precipitation	Rain containing acids that form in the atmosphere when industrial gas emissions (especially sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) combine with water.
900341531	Element	...
900341532	Compound	...
900341534	Atom	The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.
900341536	Atomic Number	The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, unique for each element and designated by a subscript to the left of the elemental symbol.
900341539	Atomic Mass	The total mass of an atom, which is the mass in grams of 1 mole of the atom.
900341540	Dalton	A measure of mass for atoms and subatomic particles; the same as the atomic mass unit, or amu.
900341541	Isotope	One of several atomic forms of an element, each with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons, thus differing in atomic mass.
900341542	Electron Shell	...
900341543	Valence Shell	The outermost energy shell of an atom, containing the valence electrons involved in the chemical reactions of that atom.
900341544	Orbital	The three-dimensional space where an electron is found 90% of the time.
900341545	Chemical Bond	An attraction between two atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells.
900341546	Covalent Bond	A type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons.
900341547	Molecule	...
900341548	Electronegativity	...
900341549	Nonpolar Covalent Bond	A type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms of similar electronegativity.
900341550	Polar Covalent Bond	...
900341551	Ion	An atom or group of atoms that has gained or lost one or more electrons, thus acquiring a charge.
900341552	Ionic Bond	A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions.
900341553	Hydrogen Bond	A type of weak chemical bond that is formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule or in another region of the same molecule.
900341554	Van der Waals Interactions	Weak attractions between molecules or parts of molecules that result from transient local partial charges.
900341555	Chemical Reaction	The making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the composition of matter.
900341556	Reactant	A starting material in a chemical reaction.
900341557	Product	...
900341558	Chemical Equilibrium	In a chemical reaction, the state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, so that the relative concentrations of the reactants and products do not change with time.
900341559	Trace Element	An element indispensable for life but required in extremely minute amounts.
900341560	Evolution	The process of change that has transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity of organisms living today.
900341561	Biology	The study of life.
900341562	Emergent Properties	New properties that emerge with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.
900341563	Reductionism	The approach of reducing complex systems into simpler components that are more manageable to study.
900341564	Systems Biology	An approach that attempts to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the interactions among the system's parts.
900341565	Global Climate Change	A broad term that refers to changes in the earth's climate mostly as a result of changes in temperature and precipitation.
900341566	Eukaryotic Cell	A type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Examples of organisms with these cells are protists, plants, fungi, and animals.
900341567	Prokaryotic Cell	A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in bacteria and archaea.
900341568	DNA	A nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.
900341569	Genes	The units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to offspring.
900341570	Gene Expression	Conversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein.
900341571	Genome	The entire "library" of genetic instructions that an organism inherits.
900341572	Genomics	The study of whole sets of genes and their interactions within a species, as well as genome comparisons between species.
900341573	Bioinformatics	The use of computers, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate biological information from large data sets.
900341574	Feedback Regulation	The output, or product, of a process regulates that very process.
900341575	Negative Feedback	Accumulation of an end product of a process slows the process; a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change.
900341576	Positive Feedback	Accumulation of an end product speeds up its own production; less common than negative feedback.
900341577	Taxonomy	The branch of biology that classifies plants and animals into groups of increasing breadth, based on the degree to which they share characteristics. Domain> Kingdom> Phylum> Class> Order> Family> Genus> Species
900341578	Domain	The inclusive taxonomic group, larger than kingdom: bacteria, archaea, eukarya
900341579	Bacteria	One of two prokaryotic domains, the other being Archaea.
900341580	Archaea	One of two prokaryotic domains of life; are typically now found in extreme environments.
900341581	Eukarya	Domain of all organisms whose cells have nuclei, including protists, plants, fungi, and animals.
900341582	Kingdom	Second largest taxonomic group, distinguished partly by modes of nutrition: animalia, plantae, protista, eubacteria, archaebacteria, fungi.
900341583	Charles Darwin	Made three observations from nature: 1) individuals in a population vary in traits, many heritable. 2) a population can produce far more offspring than can survive to produce offspring of their own. 3) species generally suit their environments.
900341584	Natural Selection	A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
900341585	Science	a way of knowing that seeks to understand the natural world within the limits of naturalistic explanations.
900341586	Inquiry	The search for information and explanation, often focusing on specific questions.
900341587	Data	Recorded observations.
900341588	Qualitative	Data in the form of recorded descriptions rather than numerical measurements.
900341589	Quantitative	Data generally recorded as measurements.
900341590	Inductive Reasoning	A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.
900341591	Hypothesis	A rational, tentative answer for a set of observations, based on the available data and guided by inductive reasoning. Must be TESTABLE and FALSIFIABLE.
900341592	Deductive Reasoning	A type of reasoning in which specific results are predicted from a general premise; "if...then" logic.
900341593	Scientific Method	An idealized process of inquiry.
900341594	Warning Coloration	Distinctive patterns that stand out against the background, used by poisonous animals to ward off predators.
900341595	Controlled Experiment	An experiment that compares an experimental group with a control group. Ideally, the two groups differ only in the factor the experiment is designed to test.
900341596	Theory	An explanation that is broader in scope than a hypothesis, generates new hypotheses, and is supported by a large body of evidence.
900341597	Model Organism	A species that is easy to grow in the lab and lends itself particularly well to the questions being investigated.
900341598	Technology	The practical application of science to commerce or industry.
900341599	Jakob Bohme (1575-1624)	The doctrine of signatures
900341600	Scripture & Creation	God's two books of Revelation
900341601	Theology	a human discipline created to study the Scriptures.
900341602	Science	a human discipline created to study the Creation.
900341603	methodological	using natural methods
900341604	metaphysical	no supernatural exists
900341605	naturalism	nature is everything
900341606	materialism	matter is everything
900341607	Discovery Science	describes structures and processes using observation and analysis. It produces general conclusions (based on observations) via inductive reasoning
900341608	Hypothesis-Based Science	seeks explanations of phenomena by proposing and testing hypotheses. It moves from general observations to specific conclusions. Hypotheses are tested using deductive reasoning. Hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable.
900341609	polar	-water unequal sharing of electrons
900341610	four properties of water	1.Cohesive behavior 2.Ability to moderate temperature 3.Expansion upon freezing 4.Versatility as a solvent
900341611	Organic Compound	- compound containing carbon and (usually hydrogen); originally thought to be made only by living organisms (also frequently O, N, S, & P)
900341612	Structural isomers	have different covalent arrangements of their atoms
900341613	Geometric isomers	have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements
900341614	nucleic acids	Genetic Information and Energy (ATP, etc.)
900341615	Fats	Usually of animal origin Solid at room temperature
900341616	Oils	Usually of plant origin Liquid at room temperature
900341617	components of a nucleotide	Phosphate Pentose sugar Nitrogen-containing base