PSYC 2301 Flashcards

1624265400	Illusory Correlation	Focusing on 2 events that stand out and occur together	0
1624265401	Skepticism	Ideas must be evaluated on basis of careful logic & results from scientific investigations	1
1624265402	Empiricism	Idea that knowledge is based on observations	2
1624265403	Falsifiability	Able to be falsified by data	3
1624265404	Peer Review	Process of other expert scientists carefully evaluating research of a study in order to recumbent whether it should be published	4
1624265405	Pseudoscience	"Fake" science in which seemingly scientific terms & demonstrations are used to substantiate claims that have no basis in scientific research	5
1624265406	Facilitated Communication	Procedure used by therapists working with autistic children	6
1624265407	Temporal Precedence	Temporal order of events in which the cause precedes the effect	7
1624265408	Covariation of Cause & Effect	When cause is present, effect occurs and when cause is absent, effect is absent	8
1624265409	Basic Research	Tries to answer fundamental questions about nature of behavior	9
1624265410	Applied Research	Conducted to address issues in which there are practical problems & potential solutions	10
1624265411	Program Evaluation	Assesses the social reforms & innovations that occur in government, education, the criminal justice system, industry, health care, and mental health instructions	11
1624265412	Exposure Therapy	People who suffer from phobia are exposed to object of fears in safe setting while therapist trains them in relaxation techniques	12
1624265413	Hypothesis	Tentative idea or question that is waiting for evidence to support or refute it	13
1624265414	Respondents	Individuals who take part in survey research	14
1624265415	Informants	People who help researchers understand dynamics of particular cultural & organizational settings	15
1624265416	Classical Conditioning	Neutral stimulus if paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus that produces a reflex response will eventually produce the response when presented alone	16
1624265417	Theory	Systematic body of ideas about particular topic	17
1624265418	Literature Reviews	Articles that summarize the research in a particular area	18
1624265419	Abstract	Summary of research report that typically runs less than 120 words that includes info about hypothesis, procedure, and broad pattern of results	19
1624265420	Introduction	Explains problem under investigation and specific hypothesis being tested through past research and relative theories	20
1624265421	Method	Detailedly describes exact procedures used for study in several subsections	21
1624265422	Results	Where findings are presented in 3 ways	22
1624265423	Discussion	Where researcher may speculate broader implications of results, propose alternative explanations, discuss reasons of unsupported hypothesis, or make suggestions for further research	23
1624265424	Confederate	Accomplice	24
1624265425	The Belmont Report	Origins for ethical guidelines in both behavioral & medical researchers	25
1624265426	Beneficence	Need for research to maximize benefits & minimize possible harmful effects of participation	26
1624265427	Risk-Benefit Analysis	Calculating potential risks & benefits likely result	27
1624265428	Risks	Factors such as psychological or physical harm & loss of confidentiality	28
1624265429	Confidentiality	Important when studying topics such as sexual behavior, divorce, family, violence, or drug abuse	29
1624265430	Autonomy	Respect for persons	30
1624265431	Informed Consent	States participants are treated as autonomous and are capable of making deliberate decisions about whether or not to participate	31
1624265432	Assent	Agreement by minor	32
1624265433	Deception	Active misrepresentation of info	33
1624265434	Debriefing	Opportunity for researcher to deal with issues of withholding info, deception, and potential harmful effects of participants after study completion	34
1624265435	Role Playing	Experimenter describes situation to participants and asks them how they would respond to situation	35
1624265436	Simulation	Used to examine conflict between competing individuals, driving behavior using driving simulators, or jury deliberations	36
1624265437	Honest Experiments	Where behavior could be studied without elaborate deception	37
1624265438	Justice	Addresses issues of fairness in receiving benefits of research and bearing burdens of accepting risks & requires researchers to address issues of equity	38
1624265439	Institutional Review Board	Responsible for review of research conducted w/ in institution composed of at least 5 individuals, 1 outside the institution	39
1624265440	Exempt Research	Research without risk	40
1624265441	Minimal Risk	Risks of harm to participants are no greater than risks encountered in daily life or in routine physical or psychological tests	41
1624265442	IACUC	Charged w/ reviewing animal research procedures & ensuring all regulations are adhered to	42
1624265443	Fraud	Fabrication of data	43
1624265444	Plagiarism	Misrepresenting another's work as your own	44
1624265445	Variable	Any event, situation, behavior, or individual characteristic that varies	45
1624265446	Operational Definition	Set of procedures used to measure or manipulate it	46
1624265447	Construct Validity	Adequacy of operational definition of variables	47
1624265448	Correlation Coefficient	Numerical index of strength of relationship between variables	48
1624265449	Uncertainty	Implies there is randomness in events known as random variability in events	49
1624265450	Non-experimental	Relationships studied by making observations it measures of variables of interest	50
1624265451	Experimental Method	Direct manipulation and control of variables	51
1624265452	Correlational Method	Examine whether variables correlate or vary together	52
1624265453	3rd-variable Problem	May be a relationship between 2 variables because some other variables affects both	53
1624265454	Confounding Variable	Intertwined so you can't determine which variable is operating in given situation	54
1624265455	Experimental Control	All extraneous variables kept constant	55
1624265456	Randomization	Ensures that extraneous variable is just as likely to affect 1 experimental group as the other	56
1624265457	Independent Variable	Considered to be cause	57
1624265458	Dependent Variable	The effect	58
1624265459	Internal Validity	Ability to draw conclusions about causal relationships from results of study	59
1624265460	External Validity	Concerns extent to which results can be generalized to other populations & settings	60
1624265461	Field Experiment	Independent variable manipulated in natural setting	61
1624265462	Ex post facto	After the fact	62
1624265463	Participant Variables (Subject Variables/Personal Attributes)	Characteristics of individuals	63
1624265464	Reliability	Consistency or stability of measured behavior	64
1624265465	True Score	Real score on variable	65
1624265466	Measurement Score	Contained by unreliable measure so that it doesn't provide an accurate indication	66
1624265467	Items	Questions	67
1624265468	Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)	Gives information about strength of correlation	68
1624265469	Reliability Coefficient	Correlation	69
1624265470	Test Retest Reliability	Assessed by measuring same individuals @ 2 points in time	70
1624265471	Internal Consistency Reliability	Assessment of reliability using responses @ only 1 point in time	71
1624265472	Split Half Reliability (Spearman Brown Split Half Reliability Coefficient)	Correlation of total score on half of test with total score on other half	72
1624265473	Cronbach's Alpha	Provides average of all possible split half reliability coefficients	73
1624265474	Item Total Correlations	Provide info about each individual item	74
1624265475	Interrater Reliability	Extent to which raters agree in observations	75
1624265476	Cohen's Kappa	Commonly used indicator of interrupter reliability	76
1624265477	Face Validity	Evidence for validity is that measure appears "on face of it" to measure what it's supposed to measure	77
1624265478	Content Validity	Based on comparing content of measure with universe content that defines construct	78
1624265479	Criterion	Behavior	79
1624265480	Predictive Validity	Research that uses measure to predict some future behavior	80
1624265481	Concurrent Validity	Examines relationship between measure & criterion behavior concurrently	81
1624265482	Convergent Validity	Extent to which scores on measure in question are related to scores on other measures of the same or similar constructs	82
1624265483	Discriminant Validity	Irrelevant measures to construct	83
1624265484	Reactivity	Amount awareness of being measured changes individual's behavior	84
1624265485	Ordinal Scales	Rank order levels of variable being studied	85
1624265486	Interval Scale	Difference between numbers on scale	86
1624265487	Ratio Scales	Have an absolute 0 to indicate absence of variable being measured	87
1624265488	Single-Case Experimental (Single-Subject) Design	Determine whether experimental manipulation had effect in single research participant	88
1624265489	Reversal Design	Demonstrates reversibility of manipulation	89
1624265490	Withdrawal Design	Treatment removed	90
1624265491	Multiple Baseline Design	Effectiveness of treatment demonstrated when behavior changes only after manipulation	91
1624265492	Across Subjects	Behavior of several subjects measured over time	92
1624265493	Across Behaviors	Several different behaviors of single subject measured over time	93
1624265494	Across Situations	Same behavior measures in different settings	94
1624265495	Program Evaluation	Research on programs that are implemented to achieve positive effect on group of individuals	95
1624265496	Needs Assessment	Ask whether there are problems that need to be addressed in target population	96
1624265497	Program Theory Assessment	Program assigned to address problems	97
1624265498	Process Evaluation/Program Monitoring	Determine whether program is reaching target population, attracting enough clients, and staff is providing planned services	98
1624265499	Outcome Evaluation/Impact Assessment	Measuring outcome and studying impact of of program on outcome measure	99
1624265500	Efficiency Assessment	Determine whether program is worth resources it consumes	100
1624265501	Quasi-Experimental Design	Addresses need to study effect of independent variable in settings which control features of true experimental can't be achieved	101
1624265502	One-Group Posttest-Only Design/One-Shot Case Study	Lacks crucial element of true experiment: Control/Comparison group	102
1624265503	One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design	Measure participants before manipulation & again afterward	103
1624265504	History	Any event that occurs between 1st & 2nd measurements but is not part of manipulation	104
1624265505	History Effects	Caused by virtually any confounding event that occurs at the same time as experimental manipulation	105
1624265506	Maturation Effects	Any changes that occur systematically over time	106
1624265507	Testing Effects	Simply taking pretest changes participant's behavior	107
1624265508	Instrument Decay	Basic characteristics of measuring instruments change over time	108
1624265509	Regression Toward the Mean/Statistical Regression	Participants selected because they score extremely high or low on some variable	109
1624265510	Nonequivalent Control Group Design	Employs separate control group, but participants in 2 conditions (experimental & control) are not equivalent	110
1624265511	Selection Differences/Selection Bias	Differences in nonequivalent control group design become confounding variables	111
1624265512	Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest-Posttest Design	Nonequivalent control group design with pretest	112
1624265513	Propensity Score Matching	Individuals in treatment & control groups matched on propensity scores	113
1624265514	Interrupted Time Series Design	Examine rates over extended period of time (before & after reform was instituted)	114
1624265515	Control Series Design	Way to improve interrupted time series design by finding some sort of control group	115
1624265516	Cross-Sectional Method	Persons of different ages studied at only one point in time	116
1624265517	Longitudinal Method	Same group of people observed at different points in time as they grow older	117
1624265518	Cohort	Group of people born at about same time, exposed to same events in society, and influenced by same demographic trends	118
1624265519	Cohort Effects	Difference among groups of different ages may reflect developmental age changes	119
1624265520	Sequential Method	Combo of cross-sectional followed by longitudinal methods	120
1624265521	Nominal Scale	No numerical, quantitative properties	121
1624265522	Ordinal Scale	Exhibit minimal quantitative distinctions	122
1624265523	Interval Scale	Intervals between levels are equal in size	123
1624265524	Ratio Scale	Equal intervals with absolute zero	124
1624265525	Frequency Distribution	Indicates number of individuals who receive each possible score on variable	125
1624265526	Pie Charts	Divide whole circle into slices that represent relative percentages for nominal scale info	126
1624265527	Bar Graphs	Use separate & distinct bar for each piece of info	127
1624265528	Frequency Polygons	Use line to represent distribution of frequencies of scores most useful with interval & ratio data	128
1624265529	Histogram	Uses bars to display frequency distribution for quantitative variable	129
1624265530	Descriptive Statistics	Allow researchers to make precise statements about data	130
1624265531	Central Tendency	Tells what sample as a whole or average is like	131
1624265532	Mean	Adding all scores and dividing by number of scores represented by X or M	132
1624265533	Median	Score that divides group in half abbreviated as Mdn	133
1624265534	Mode	Most frequent score	134
1624265535	Variability	Number that characterizes amount of spread in score distribution	135
1624265536	Standard Deviation (s or SD)	Average deviation of scores from mean derived from variance	136
1624265537	Variance	SD squared	137
1624265538	Range	Difference between highest & lowest score	138
1624265539	Correlation Coefficient	Describes how strongly variables are related to one another	139
1624265540	Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r)	Both variables have interval or ratio scale properties that provides info about strength & direction of relationship	140
1624265541	Scatterplot	Each pair of scores plotted as single point in diagram	141
1624265542	Restriction of Range	Individuals in sample are very similar on variable being studied	142
1624265543	Effect Size	Strength of association between variables	143
1624265544	Regression Equations	Calculations used to predict person's score on one variable when person's score on another variable is already known	144
1624265545	Criterion Variable	Some future behavior	145
1624265546	Predictor Variable	Score on another variable	146
1624265547	Multiple Correlation (R)	Combine number of predictor variables to increase accuracy of prediction	147
1624265548	Partial Correlation	Provides way of statistically controlling 3rd variables	148
1624265549	Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)	General term to refer to techniques that examine models	149
1624265550	Inferential Statistics	Determine whether results match what would happen if experiment were conducted repeatedly	150
1624265551	Null Hypothesis	Populations means are equal	151
1624265552	Research Hypothesis	Populations means are not equal	152
1624265553	Statistical Significance	Very low probability of occurring if population means are equal	153
1624265554	Probability	Likelihood of occurrence of some event or outcome	154
1624265555	Alpha Level	Probability required for significance	155
1624265556	Sampling Distributions	Based on assumption that bull hypothesis is true	156
1624265557	t Test	Commonly used to examine whether two groups are significantly different from each other	157
1624265558	F test	More general statistical test used to ask whether there is difference among 3+ groups to evaluate results of factorial designs	158
1624265559	Degrees of Freedom (df)	Number of scores free to vary once means are known. n+n-2	159
1624265560	One-Tailed Test	Specified direction of difference	160
1624265561	Two-Tailed Test	No specified direction for prediction	161
1624265562	Systematic Variance	Deviation of group means from grand mean. Mean score of all individuals in all groups	162
1624265563	Error Variance	Deviation of individual scores in each group from retrospective group means	163
1624265564	Cohen's d	Expresses effect size in terms if standard deviation units	164
1624265565	Confidence Intervals	How likely intervals will occur	165
1624265566	Type I Error	Reject null hypothesis even though it's true	166
1624265567	Type II Error	Null hypothesis accepted even though research hypothesis in population is true	167
1624265568	Power	Probability of correctly rejecting null hypothesis	168
1624265569	Naturalistic Observation	Observations of individuals in natural environment	169
1624265570	Participant Observation	Allows researcher to observe setting from inside	170
1624265571	Systematic Observation	Careful observation of 1+ specific behaviors in particular setting	171
1624265572	Coding System	Measure behaviors	172
1624265573	Reactivity	Possibility that presence of observer will affect people's behaviors	173
1624265574	Case Study	Observational method that provides description of individual	174
1624265575	Psychobiography	Researcher applies psychological theory to explain life of individual	175
1624265576	Archival Research	Using previously compiled info to answer research questions	176
1624265577	Content Analysis	Systematic analysis of existing documents	177
1624265578	Survey Research	Employs questionnaires & interviews to provide info about self	178
1624265579	Response Set	Tendency to respond to all questions from particular perspective rather than directly related to questions	179
1624265580	Yea/Nay-Saying	Respondent may employ response set to agree/disagree with all question when asking several questions about a topic	180
1624265581	Closed-Ended Questions	Limited number of response alternatives given	181
1624265582	Open-Ended Questions	Respondents free to answer in any way they like	182
1624265583	Rating Scales	Ask people to provide "how much" judgements on any number of dimensions	183
1624265584	Graphic Rating Scale	Requires mark along continuous 100-mm line anchored w/ descriptions @ each end	184
1624265585	Semantic Differential Scale	Measure of meaning of concepts	185
1624265586	Computerized Experience-Sampling	Asked to provide immediate report of current activities & emotions	186
1624265587	Interviewer Bias	All biases that can arise from fact that interviewer is unique human interacting w/ another human	187
1624265588	Face-to-Face Interviews	Require interviewer & respondent to meet	188
1624265589	Telephone Interviews	Allow data to be collected relatively quickly	189
1624265590	Computer-Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI)	Interviewer's questions prompted on computer screen & data are entered directly into computer for analysis	190
1624265591	Focus Group	Interview with group of 6-10 brought together for 2-3 hours	191
1624265592	Panel Study	Same people surveyed 2+ points in time	192
1624265593	Populations	All individuals of interest to researcher	193
1624265594	Probability Sampling	Each member of population has specifiable probability of being chosen	194
1624265595	Non-Probability Sampling	Don't know probability of any particular member of population being chosen	195
1624265596	Simple Random Sampling	Every member of population has equal probability of being selected for sample	196
1624265597	Stratified Random Sampling	Population divided into subgroups before randomly selecting respondents	197
1624265598	Cluster Sampling	Identify "clusters" of individuals and then sample from these clusters	198
1624265599	Haphazard (Convenience) Sampling	Select sample of respondents in any convenient way	199
1624265600	Purposive Sampling	Obtain sample of people who meet some predetermined criterion	200
1624265601	Quota Sampling	Sample that reflects numerical composition of various subgroups in population	201
1624265602	Sampling Frame	Actual population of individuals from which random sample will be drawn	202
1624265603	Response Rate	Percentage of people in sample who actually complete survey	203
1624265604	Posttest-Only Design	Must obtains 2 equivalent groups, introduce independent variable, and measure its effect on dependent variable	204
1624265605	Selection Differences	Each participant assigned to condition randomly	205
1624265606	Pretest-Posttest Design	Pretest given before Posttest experiment	206
1624265607	Attrition/Morality	Drop out factor	207
1624265608	Solomon 4-Group Design	Combo of Pre/Post-test	208
1624265609	Independent Groups Design/Between-Subjects Design	Participants randomly assigned to various conditions so that each only participates in 1 group	209
1624265610	Repeated Measures Design/Within-Subjects Design	Participants experience all conditions	210
1624265611	Random Assignment	How each participant is assigned to each condition	211
1624265612	Order Effect	Order of presenting treatments affects dependent variable	212
1624265613	Practice/Learning Effect	Improvement due to order effect	213
1624265614	Fatigue Effect	Deterioration in performance due to order effect	214
1624265615	Carryover Effect	Effect of 1st treatment influences 2nd treatment	215
1624265616	Counterbalancing	All possible orders of presentation included in experiment	216
1624265617	Latin Square	Limited set of orders constructed to ensure each condition appears at each original position and each condition precedes and follows each condition once	217
1624265618	Matched Pairs Design	Match people in participant variable	218
1624265619	Setting the Stage	Variables introduced within context of total experimental setting	219
1624265620	Straightforward Manipulations	Manipulate variables w/ instructions & stimulus presentations	220
1624265621	Staged/Event Manipulation	Staging events in order to manipulate independent variable	221
1624265622	Self-Reports	Measures human thought & behavior	222
1624265623	Behavioral Measures	Direct observations of behaviors	223
1624265624	Physiological Measures	Recordings of responses of body	224
1624265625	Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)	Measure general emotional arousal & anxiety through electrical conductance of skin	225
1624265626	Electromyogram (EMG)	Measures tension or stress through muscle tension	226
1624265627	Electroencephalogram (EEG)	Measures electrical brain activity	227
1624265628	MRI	Provides image of brain structure	228
1624265629	Functional MRI (fMRI)	Allows researchers to scan areas of brain while participant performs various tasks	229
1624265630	Ceiling Effect	Independent variables appears to have no effect because participants reach maximum performance level	230
1624265631	Floor Effect	Task so difficult that hardly anyone can perform well	231
1624265632	Sensitivity	Degree of difficulty of independent variable that may affect correlations	232
1624265633	Demand Characteristics	Any feature of an experiment that might inform participants of study's purpose	233
1624265634	Placebo Effect	Receiving effects expected from independent variable	234
1624265635	Placebo Group	Receive drug containing inert & harmless substance	235
1624265636	Experimenter Bias/Expectancy Effects	Expectations become bias due to experimenters being aware of study's purpose	236
1624265637	Single-Blind Experiment	Participant is unaware whether drug is placebo	237
1624265638	Double-Blind Experiment	Neither participant nor experimenter know whether drug is placebo	238
1624265639	Pilot Study	Trial run with small amount of participants	239
1624265640	Manipulation Check	Attempt to directly measure whether independent variable manipulations has intended effect on participants	240