Peter Gray's Psychology: Chapter 2 Flashcards

Notes from Peter Gray's Psychology: Sixth Edition (International Edition)

2953108479	Clever Hans	"Genius" horse raised by Mr. von Osten, who, after educating Hans, believed that the horse was able to answer practically any question asked of him through hoof taps and head movements	0
2953108480	Mr. von Osten	Eccentric retired schoolteacher and devoted horseman who believed that, with a proper education, horses could become as intelligent as humans; trained Clever Hans; never sought personal gain from Hans	1
2953108481	Oskar Pfungst	Psychologist who discovered that Clever Hans, rather than being a genius horse, instead relied on humans' subtle and subconscious actions to answer questions	2
2953108482	Fact	An objective statement that reasonable observers agree is true; aka an observation	3
2953108483	Theory	An idea, or conceptual model, that is designed to explain existing facts and make predictions about new facts that might be discovered	4
2953108484	Hypothesis	Any prediction about new facts that is made from a theory	5
2953108485	Facts, theories, hypotheses, experiments, facts	The cycle of science	6
2953108486	Independent variable	The variable in an experiment that is hypothesized to cause some effect on another variable	7
2953108487	Dependent variable	The variable in an experiment that is hypothesized to be affected	8
2953108488	Experiment	A procedure in which a researcher systematically manipulates one or more variables and looks for changes in one or more dependent variables, while keeping all other variables constant	9
2953108489	Subjects of study	The people and animals that are studied in a research study	10
2953108490	Within-subject experiments	Experiments in which each subject is tested in each of the different condition of the independent variable	11
2953108491	Between-groups experiments	Experiments in which there is a separate group of subjects for each different condition of the independent variable	12
2953108492	Alberto DiMascio	Identified a group of patients suffering from major depression and assigned them randomly to different treatments: drug therapy, psychotherapy, both, or neither; the use of both was the most effective treatment	13
2953108493	Random assignment	A method, relying only on chance, used to assign subjects to treatment groups	14
2953108494	Correlational study	A study in which the researcher does not manipulate any variable, but observes or measures two or more already existing variables to find relationships between them	15
2953108495	Diana Baumrind	Studied the relationship between parents' disciplinary styles and children's behavioral development; between authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive disciplinary styles, authoritative was found to be most effective; other interpretations are possible, however	16
2953108496	Authoritarian disciplinary style	Disciplinary style in which there is a high exertion of parental power	17
2953108497	Authoritative disciplinary style	A kinder and more democratic disciplinary style in which the parents are still clearly in charge	18
2953108498	Permissive disciplinary style	Disciplinary style displaying parental laxity in the face of their children's disruptive behaviors	19
2953108499	Descriptive study	A study in which the aim is to describe the behavior of an individual or set of individuals without assessing relationships between different variables	20
2953108500	Jane Goodall	Researcher who performed a descriptive study on wild chimpanzees in Africa for 30 years	21
2953108501	Laboratory study	Any research study in which the subjects are brought to a specially designated area that has been set up to facilitate the researcher's collection of data or control over environmental conditions	22
2953108502	Field study	Any research study conducted in a setting other than a laboratory	23
2953108503	Self-report methods	Procedures in which people are asked to rate or describe their own behavior or mental state in some way; done through a questionnaire or through an interview	24
2953108504	Observational methods	All procedures by which researchers observe and record the behavior of interest, rather than relying on subjects' self-reports	25
2953108505	Naturalistic observation	Research method in which the researcher avoids interfering with the subjects' behavior	26
2953108506	Tests	Research method in which the researcher deliberately presents, problems, tasks, or situations in which the subject responds	27
2953108507	Gilda Morelli	Researcher who spent many months living with the Efe people she was studying so that she could perform a naturalistic observation on them	28
2953108508	Descriptive statistics	Statistics used to summarize sets of data	29
2953108509	Inferential statistics	Statistics used to help researchers decide how confident they can be in judging that the results observed are not by chance	30
2953108510	Mean	The arithmetic average, determined by adding the scores, then dividing the results by the number of scores	31
2953108511	Median	The center score of a set of data, determined by ranking the scores from lowest to highest and finding the middle score	32
2953108512	Variability	The degree to which the numbers in a set differ from one another and from their mean	33
2953108513	Standard deviation	A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score	34
2953108514	Correlation coefficient	A statistic that describes the strength and direction of a relationship when both variables are measured numerically; produces a result between +1.00 to -1.00; the sign (+ or -) indicates the direction of the correlation (positive or negative) while the absolute value indicates the strength of the correlation	35
2953108515	Positive correlation	Correlation in which an increase in one variable coincides with a tendency in the other to increase as well	36
2953108516	Negative correlation	Correlation in which a an increase in one variable coincides with a tendency in the other to decrease	37
2953108517	Level of significance (p)	The probability that a difference as great or greater than that observed would occur by chance if, in a larger population, there were no difference between the two means	38
2953108518	Statistically significant	Label given to results if the p-value is found to be less than 0.05 (5%)	39
2953108519	Error	Random variability in results	40
2953108520	Bias	Nonrandom (directed) effects caused by some factor or factors extraneous to the research hypothesis	41
2953108521	Biased sample	Sample of two groups who are systematically different from each other, or are different from the larger population that the researcher is interested in	42
2953108522	Face validity	An experiment has this if common sense tells us that a measurement procedure assesses the intended characteristic	43
2953108523	Observer-expectancy effects	Biases resulting from a researchers' wishes and expectations that can affect how they behave and what they observe	44
2953108524	Autism	A congenital disorder of development, characterized by a deficit in the ability to form emotional bonds and to communicate with other people	45
2953108525	Blind	A term in an experiment that means "uninformed"	46
2953108526	Subject-expectancy effects	Expectations of the subject that may affect the results of an experiment	47
2953108527	Double-blind experiment	An experiment in which both the observer and the subjects are kept blind	48
2953108528	Placebo	An inactive substance that looks like the real drug	49
2953108529	Ethical considerations	1. A person's right to privacy 2. The possibility of discomfort or harm 3. The use of deception	50