AP Biology Midterm Review Flashcards

8447214041	Dehydration	connecting monomers together by the removal of water	0
8447214042	Hydrolysis	disassembling polymers by the addition of water	1
8447214043	Disaccharides	glucose + glucose = maltose / glucose + fructose = sucrose / glucose + galactose = lactose	2
8447214044	Polysaccharides	Plants: starch (energy) and cellulose (structure) Animals: glycogen (energy) and chitin (structure)	3
8447214045	*Lipids	hydrophobic (very non-polar), consist of long hydrocarbon chains	4
8447214046	Fats	consist of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, store long term energy, saturated = no double bond in hydrocarbon tails (no kink), unsaturated = double bond (kink)	5
8447214047	Phospholipids	consist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic	6
8447214048	Protein structure and organization	composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular)	7
8447214049	Protein functions (8)	1) enzymes 2) antibodies 3) storage proteins 4) transport proteins 5) hormones 6) receptor proteins 7) motor proteins 8) structural proteins	8
8447214050	*Nucleic Acids	DNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins	9
8447214051	Nuclear Envelope	double membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER	10
8447214052	Chromatin	uncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division	11
8447214053	Nucleolus	nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these	12
8447214054	Rough ER	covered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes	13
8447214055	Smooth ER	metabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons)	14
8447214056	Golgi	stores, transports, and secretes cell products	15
8447214057	Cytoskeleton	supports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products	16
8447214058	Centrosomes (2 centrioles)	only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division	17
8447214059	Lysosomes	only in animal cells, digestive organelles	18
8447214060	Flagella	only in animal cells, cluster of microtubules for motility	19
8447214061	Extracellular Matrix	only in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell	20
8447214062	Central Vacuole	only in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells)	21
8447214063	Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic	nucleoid / nucleus; only ribosomes / complex membrane-bound organelles; both have same genetic coding, sugars, and amino acids	22
8447214064	Phospholipid Bilayer	tails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied	23
8447214065	Passive trasport	movement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins)	24
8447214066	Active transport	movement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)	25
8447214067	Membrane Potential	voltage across a membrane due to difference in positive and negative ions, electrons move from high to low concentration (ex. sodium-potassium pumps in neurons)	26
8447214068	Electrochemical Gradient	diffusion gradient resulting in combination of membrane potential and concentration gradient	27
8447214069	Hypertonic	solution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed	28
8447214070	Hypotonic	solution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid	29
8447214071	Isotonic	equal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid	30
8447214072	When ΔG is negative...	...the reaction is exergonic (loss of free energy).	31
8447214073	When ΔG is positive...	...the reaction is endergonic (gain of free energy).	32
8447214074	*Enzymes	proteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over	33
8447214075	Substrate	the substance that an enzyme acts upon	34
8447214076	Active Site	region of enzyme that binds to the substrate	35
8447214077	Induced fit	change in the shape of an enzyme's active site induced by the substrate, helps to break down the substrate	36
8447214078	The higher the substrate concentration...	...the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated.	37
8447214079	Denaturation	the unraveling of an enzyme due to high temperatures or incompatible pH	38
8447214080	Cofactors	nonprotein molecules that are required for proper enzyme function, cofactors made of organic molecules are called coenzymes	39
8447214081	Enzyme inhibition may be irreversible if...	...the inhibitor attaches by covalent bonds (poisons, toxins)	40
8447214082	Competitive Inhibitors	resemble a substrate and block enzymes' active sites, can be overcome with higher concentration of substrate	41
8447214083	Noncompetitive Inhibitors	bind to a portion of the enzyme and change the shape of the active site so that it cannot match with substrates, used for regulating metabolic reactions	42
8447214084	Feedback Inhibition	the product of a metabolic pathway switches off the enzyme that created it earlier in the process	43
8447214085	Oxidation	loss of electrons (OIL)	44
8447214086	Reduction	gain of electrons (RIG)	45
8447214087	Oxidative Phosphorylation	ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen	46
8447214088	Electron Acceptors	Cellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2) Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH)	47
8447214089	Glycolysis	Input: glucose, 2 ATP Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH	48
8447214090	Conversion Reaction before Kreb's	Input: 2 pyruvate Output: 2 acetyl (w/ CoA), 2 NADH, 2 CO2	49
8447214091	Krebs Cycle	Input: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle)	50
8447214092	Electron Transport Chain	Input: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-) Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O	51
8447214093	Alcohol Fermentation	Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2)	52
8447214094	Lactic Acid Fermentation	Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2)	53
8447214095	Photosynthetic Equation		54
8447214096	Chloroplast structure	Exciting chlorophyll: chlorophyll in thylakoids absorb light, which excites electrons to produce potential energy	55
8447214097	Light Reactions	Input: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+ Output: O2, ATP, NADPH	56
8447214098	Calvin Cycle	Input: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose	57
8447214108	Prokaryotic cell division	binary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation	58
8447214109	Somatic cell vs. Gamete	any body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg)	59
8447214110	Interphase	(90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis	60
8447214111	Mitosis	1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense	61
8447214112	Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks)	a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase	62