AP World History Flashcards

2463964333	Paleolithic Age	The Old Stone Age ending in 12,000 BCE; typified by use of crude stone tools and hunting and gathering for subsistence.	0
2463972657	Homo sapiens	The humanoid species that emerged as most successful at the end of the Paleolithic period.	1
2463977959	Neolithic Age	The New Stone Age between 8000 and 5000 BCE; period in which adaptation of sedentary agriculture occurred; domestication of plants and animals accomplished.	2
2463987716	Neolithic Revolution	The succession of technological innovations and changes in human organization that led to the development of agriculture, 8500-3500 BCE	3
2463995882	hunting and gathering	The original human economy, ultimately eclipsed by agriculture; groups hunt for meat and forage for grains, nuts, and berries	4
2464002819	Bronze Age	From about 4000 BCE when bronze tools were first introduced in the Middle East to about 1500 BCE when iron began to replace it.	5
2464009721	slash and burn agriculture	A system of cultivation typical of shifting cultivators; forest floors cleared by fire are then planted.	6
2464015831	band	A level of social organization normally consisting of 20 to 30 people; nomadic hunters and gatherers; labor divided on a gender basis.	7
2464028265	Çatal Hüyük	Early urban culture based on sedentary agriculture; located in modern day southern Turkey; was larger in population than Jericho, had greater degree of social stratification.	8
2464038275	civilization	Societies distinguished by reliance on sedentary agriculture, ability to produce food surpluses, and existence of nonfarming elites, as well as merchant and manufacturing groups.	9
2464047239	cuneiform	A form of writing developed by the Sumerians using a wedge-shaped stylus and clay tablets.	10
2464052694	nomads	Cattle- and sheep-herding societies normally found on the fringes of civilized societies; commonly referred to as "barbarian" by civilized societies.	11
2464060689	Mesopotamia	Literally "between the rivers"; the civilizations that arose in the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys.	12
2464067595	Sumerians	People who migrated into Mesopotamia c. 4000 BCE; created first civilization within region; organized area into city-states.	13
2464073706	ziggurats	Massive towers usually associated with Mesopotamian temple complexes.	14
2464077420	city-state	A form of political organization typical of Mesopotamian civilizations; consisted of agricultural hinterlands ruled by an urban-based king.	15
2464084521	Babylonian Empire	Unified all of Mesopotamia c 1800 BCE; collapsed due to foreign invasion c 1600 BCE.	16
2464089722	Hammurabi	(r. 1792 - 1750 BCE) The most important ruler of the Babylonian Empire; responsible for codification of law.	17
2464096914	pharaoh	Title of kings of Ancient Egypt.	18
2464098806	pyramids	Monumental architecture typical of Old Kingdom Egypt; used as burial sites for pharaohs.	19
2464103200	Kush	An African state that developed along the upper reaches of the Nile c. 1000 BCE; conquered Egypt and ruled it for several centuries.	20
2464113582	Indus River Valley	River sources in Himalayas to mouth in Arabian Sea; location of Harappan civilization.	21
2464119298	Harappa	Along with Mohenjodaro, major urban complex of the Harappan civilization; laid out on planned grid pattern.	22
2464130905	Mohenjo Daro	Along with Harappa, major urban complex of the Harappan civilization; laid out on planned grid pattern.	23
2464134839	Yellow River	Also known as the Huanghe; site of development of sedentary agriculture in China.	24
2464139288	Shang	First Chinese dynasty for which archeological evidence exists; capital located in Ordos bulge of the Huanghe; flourished 1600 to 1046 BCE.	25
2464145949	oracles	Shamans of priests in Chinese society who foretold the future through interpretations of animal bones cracked by heat; inscriptions on the bones led to Chinese writing.	26
2464153617	ideographs	Pictographic characters grouped together to create new concepts; typical of Chinese writing.	27
2464159926	Phoenicians	Seafaring civilization located on the shores of the eastern Mediterranean; established colonies throughout the Mediterranean.	28
2464164413	monotheism	The exclusive worship of a single god; introduced by the Jews into Western civilization.	29
2464174730	Shi Huangdi	Founder of the brief Qin dynasty in 221 BCE.	30
2464177831	Qin dynasty	Established in 221 BCE at the end of the Warring States period following the decline of the Zhou dynasty; fell in 207 BCE.	31
2464183667	Han dynasty	Chinese dynasty that succeeded the Qin in 202 BCE; ruled for the next 400 years.	32
2464188717	Zhou	Originally a vassal family of Shang China; possibly Turkic in origin; overthrew the Shang and established a second Chinese historical dynasty that flourished 1122 to 256 BCE.	33
2464198650	Confucius	Also known as Kung Fuzi; major Chinese philosopher born in the 6th century BCE; author of "Analects"; philosophy based on need for restoration of order through advice of superior men to be found among the shi.	34
2464206145	Great Wall	Chinese defensive fortification intended to keep out the nomadic invaders from the north; initiated during Qin dynasty and reign of Shi Huangdi.	35
2464216500	Buddha	Creator of a major Indian and Asian religion; birn in 6th century BCE as son of a local ruler among Aryan tribes located near the Himalayas; became an ascetic; found enlightenment could be achieved only by abandoning desires for all earthly things.	36
2464239993	Alexander the Great	Successor of Philip II; successfully conquered Persian Empire prior to his death in 323 BCE; attempted to combine Greek and Persian cultures.	37
2464245863	Himalayas	Mountain region marking the northern border of the Indian subcontinent; site of the Aryan settlements that formed small kingdoms of warrior republics.	38
2464251730	monsoons	Seasonal winds crossing Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia; during summer bring rains.	39
2464257042	Sanskrit	The sacred and classical Indian language.	40
2464258936	Vedas	Aryan hymns originally transmitted orally but written down in sacred books from the 6th century BCE.	41
2464264321	Mahabharata	Indian epic of war, princely honor, love, and social duty; written down in the last centuries BCE; previously handed down in oral form.	42
2464272432	Ramayana	One of the great epic tales from classical India; traces adventures of King Rama and his wife, Sita; written 4th to 2nd centuries BCE.	43
2464278725	Upanishads	Later books of the Vedas; contained sophisticated and sublime philosophical ideals; utilized by Brahmans to restore religious authority.	44
2464283882	varnas	Clusters of caste groups in Aryan society; four social castes- Brahmans (priests), warriors, merchants, and peasants; beneath four Aryan castes was group of socially untouchable Dasas.	45
2464294389	untouchables	Low social class in Hindu culture; performed tasks that were considered polluting- street sweeping, removal of human waste, and tanning.	46
2464300602	Indra	Chief deity of the Aryans; depicted as a colossal, hard-drinking warrior.	47
2464305127	Chandragupta Maurya	Founder of the Maurya dynasty; established first empire in Indian subcontinent; first centralized government since Harappan civilization.	48
2464314972	Mauryan Dynasty	Established in Indian subcontinent in 4th century BCE following invasion by Alexander the Great.	49
2464319909	Ashoka	Grandson of Chandragupta Maurya; completed conquests of Indian subcontinent; converted to Buddhism and sponsored spread of new religion throughout his empire.	50
2464325182	dharma	The caste position and career determined by a person's birth; Hindu culture required that one accept one's social position and perform occupation to the best of one's ability in order to have a better situation in the next life.	51
2464338052	Guptas	Dynasty that succeeded the Kushans in the 3rd century CE, built empire that extended to all but the southern regions of Indian sub-continent; less centralized than Mauryan Empire.	52
2464344974	Kautilya	Political advisor to Chandragupta Maurya; one of the authors of Arthashastra; believed in scientific application of warfare.	53
2464351080	gurus	Originally referred to as Brahmans who served as teachers for the princes of the imperial court of the Guptas.	54
2464355865	Vishnu	The Brahman, later Hindu, god of sacrifice, widely worshipped.	55
2464358800	Shiva	Hindu, god of destruction and reproduction; worshipped as the personification of cosmic forces of change.	56
2464363196	nirvana	The Buddhist state of enlightenment; a state of tranquility.	57
2464366973	Kamasutra	Written by Vatsayana during Gupta era; offered instructions on all aspects of life for higher-caste males; including grooming, hygiene, etiquette, selection of wives, and lovemaking.	58
2464375303	stupas	Stone shrines build to house pieces of bone or hair and personal possessions said to be the relics of the Buddha; preserved Buddhist architectural forms.	59
2464383544	scholar-gentry	Chinese class created by the marital linkage of the local land-holding aristocracy with the office-holding shi; superseded shi as governors of China.	60
2469675495	Cyrus the Great	Established massive Persian Empire by 550 BCE; successor state to Mesopotamian empires.	61
2469681146	Zoroastrianism	Animist religion that saw material existence as battle between forces of good and evil; stressed the importance of moral choice; righteous lived on after death in "House of Song"; chief religion of Persian Empire.	62
2469689376	Olympic games	One of the pan-Hellenic rituals observed by all Greek city-states; involved athletic competitions and ritual celebrations.	63
2469693453	Pericles	Athenian political leader during the 5th century BCE; guided development of Athenian Empire; died during early stages of Peloponnesian War.	64
2469699256	Peloponnesian Wars	Wars from 431 to 404 BCE between Athens and Sparta for dominance in Southern Greece; resulted in Spartan victory but failure to achieve political unity of Greece.	65
2469704699	Phillip II	Ruled Macedon from 359 to 336 BCE; founder of centralized kingdom; later conquered rest of Greece, which was subject to Macedonian authority.	66
2469710474	Hellenistic period	That culture associated with the spread of Greek influence as a result of Macedonian conquests; often seen as the combination of Greek culture with eastern political forms.	67
2469715022	Alexandria, Egypt	One of the cities founded by and named for Alexander the Great; site of ancient Mediterranean's greatest library; center of literary studies.	68
2469721085	Roman republic	The balanced constitution of Rome from c. 510 to 47 BCE; featured an aristocratic Senate, a panel of magistrates, and several popular assemblies.	69
2469725766	Punic Wars	Fought between Rome and Carthage to establish dominance in the Western Mediterranean; won by Rome after three separate conflicts.	70
2469730251	Carthage	Originally a Phoenician colony in northern Africa; became a major port and commercial power in the western Mediterranean; fought the Punic Wars with Rome for dominance of the western Mediterranean.	71
2469735525	Hannibal	Great Carthaginian general during the Second Punic War; successfully invaded Italy but failed to conquer Rome; finally defeated at Battle of Zama.	72
2469740560	Julius Caesar	Roman general responsible for conquest of Gaul; brought army back to Rome and overthrew republic; assassinated in 44 BCE by conservative senators.	73
2469745060	Augustus Caesar	Name given to Octavian following his defeat of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra; first emperor of Rome.	74
2469749946	Diocletian	Roman emperor from 284 to 305 CE; restored later empire by improved administration and tax collection. Divided the Roman Empire into east and west sections.	75
2469754017	Constantine	Roman emperor from 312 to 337 CE; established second capital at Constantinople; attempted to use religious force of Christianity to unify empire spiritually.	76
2469759774	direct democracy	Where people participate directly in assemblies that make laws and select leaders, rather than electing representatives.	77
2469763201	Senate	Assembly of Roman aristocrats; advised on policy within the republic; one of the early elements of the Roman constitution.	78
2469765845	consuls	Two chief executives or magistrates of the Roman republic; elected by an annual assembly dominated by aristocracy.	79
2469768503	Cicero	(106-43 BCE) Conservative Roman senator; stoic philosopher; one of the great orators of his day; killed in reaction to assassination of Julius Caesar.	80
2469773897	Aristotle	(384-322 BCE) Greek philosopher; teacher of Alexander the Great; knowledge based on observation of phenomena in material world.	81
2469778687	Stoics	Hellenistic group of philosophers; emphasized inner moral independence cultivated by strict discipline of the body and personal bravery.	82
2469784077	Socrates	Athenian philosopher of later 5th century BCE; tutor of Plato; urged rational reflection of moral decisions; condemned to death for corrupting minds of Athenian young.	83
2469789772	Sophocles	(496-406 BCE) Greek writer of tragedies; author of Oedipus Rex	84
2469791413	Iliad and Odyssey	Greek epic poems attributed to Homer but possibly the work of many authors; defined gods and human nature that shaped Greek mythos.	85
2469796247	Doric	Along with Ionian and Corinthian, distinct style of Hellenistic architecture; the least ornate of the three styles.	86
2469802414	Ionic	Along with Doric and Corinthian, distinct style of Hellenistic architecture; more ornate than Doric but less than Corinthian.	87
2469805316	Corinthian	Along with Doric and Ionic, distinct style of Hellenistic architecture; the most ornate of the three styles.	88
2475957279	Axum	Kingdom located in Ethiopian highlands; replaced Meroë in the first century CE; received strong influence from Arabian peninsula; eventually converted to Christianity.	89
2475960267	Ethiopia	A Christian kingdom that developed on the highlands of eastern Africa under the dynasty of King Lalaibela; retained Christianity in the face of Muslim expansion elsewhere in Africa.	90
2475962717	Sahara	Desert running across northern Africa; separates the Mediterranean coast from southern Africa.	91
2475964328	Shinto	Religion of early Japanese culture; devotees worshipped numerous gods and spirits associated with the natural world; offers of food and prayers made to gods and nature spirits.	92
2475968105	Olmec culture	Cultural tradition that arose at San Lorenzo and La Venta in Mexico c. 1200 BCE; found irrigated agriculture, urbanism, elaborate religion, beginnings of calendrical and writing systems.	93
2475975796	Teotihuacan	Site of classic culture in central Mexico; urban center with important religious functions; supported by intensive agriculture in surrounding regions; population of as much as 20,000.	94
2475981587	Maya	Classic culture emerging in southern Mexico and Central America contemporary with Teotihuacan; extended over broad region; featured monumental architecture; written language, calendrical and mathematical systems, highly developed religion.	95
2475987909	Inca	Group of clans centered at Cuzco that were able to create an empire incorporating various Andean cultures; term also used for leader of empire.	96
2475991434	Polynesia	Islands contained in a rough triangle whose points lie in Hawaii, New Zealand, and Easter Island.	97
2475993673	Yellow Turbans	Chinese Daoists who launched a revolt in 184 CE in China promising a Golden Age to be brought about by divine magic.	98
2475995895	Sui	Dynasty that succeeded Han in China; emerged from string rulers in northern China; united all of northern China and reconquered southern China.	99
2475997227	Tang	Dynasty that succeeded the Sui in 618 CE; more stable than previous dynasty.	100
2476000184	Rajput	Regional princes in western India; emphasized military control of their regions.	101
2476001686	Devi	Mother goddess within Hinduism; widely spread following collapse of Guptas; encouraged new emotionalism in religious ritual.	102
2476003261	Islam	Major world religion having its origins in 610 CE in the Arabian peninsula; meaning literally submission, based on prophecy of Muhammad.	103
2476006396	Allah	Supreme God in strictly monotheistic Islam.	104
2476010148	Byzantine Empire	Eastern half of Roman empire following collapse of western half of old empire; retained Mediterranean culture, particularly Greek; later lost Palestine, Syria, and Egypt to Islam; capital at Constantinople.	105
2476015510	Justinian	Early Byzantine emperor, responsible for major building in Constantinople and a codification of Roman law; his efforts to recapture some additional previously Roman territory ended in failure.	106
2476019567	St. Augustine	Influential church father and theologian (354-430 CE); born in Africa and ultimately bishop of Hippo in Africa; champion of Christian doctrine against various heresies and very important in the long-term development of Christian thought on such issues as predestination.	107
2476024417	Coptic	Christian sect in Egypt, later tolerated after Islamic takeover.	108
2476027394	bodhisattvas	Buddhist holy men; built up spirit merits during their lifetime; prayers even after death could aid people to achieve reflected holiness.	109
2476030339	Mahayana	Chinese version of Buddhism; placed considerable emphasis on Buddha as god or savior.	110
2476032789	Jesus of Nazareth	Prophet and teacher among the Jews; believed by Christians to be the Messiah; executed c. 30 CE.	111
2476036281	Paul	(3-67 CE) One of the first Christians missionaries; moved away from insistence that adherents of the new religion follow Jewish law; use of Greek as language of Church.	112
2476041807	pope	Bishop of Rome; head of the Christian church in western Europe.	113
2476043284	Benedict of Nersia	Founder of monasticism in what had been the western half of the Roman empire; established Benedictine Rule in the 6th century CE; paralleled development of Basil's rules in Byzantine Empire.	114
2476048791	animism	A religious outlook that sees gods in many aspects of nature and propitiates them to help control and explain nature; typical of Mesopotamian religions.	115
2574263919	bedouin	Nomadic pastoralists of the Arabian peninsula; culture based on camel and goat nomadism; early converts to Islam.	116
2574269388	shaykhs	Leaders of tribes and clans within bedouin society; usually men with large herds, several wives, and many children.	117
2574275525	Mecca	City located in mountainous region along Red Sea in Arabian peninsula; founded by Umayyad clan of Quraysh; site of Ka'ba; original home of Muhammad; location of chief religious pilgrimage point in Islam.	118
2574283724	Umayyad	Clan of Quraysh that dominated politics and commercial economy of Mecca; clan establishes dynasty as rulers of Islam, 661 to 750.	119
2574289384	Quraysh	Tribe of bedouins that controlled Mecca in the 7th century CE.	120
2574292712	Ka'ba	Most revered religious shrine in pre-Islamic Arabia; located in Mecca; focus of obligatory annual truce among bedouin tribes; later incorporated as an important shrine in Islam.	121
2574298402	Medina	Also known as Yathrib; town located northeast of Mecca; grew date palms whose fruit was sold to bedouins; became refuge for Muhammad following flight from Mecca (hijra).	122
2574305959	Muhammad	Prophet of Islam; born c. 570 to Banu Hashim clan of Quraysh tribe in Mecca; raised by father's family; received revelations from Allah in 610 CE and thereafter; died in 632.	123
2574313112	Khadijah	First wife of the prophet Muhammad, who had worked for her as a trader.	124
2574318395	Qur'an	Recitations of revelations received by Muhammad; holy book of Islam.	125
2574322445	Ali	Cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad; one of orthodox caliphs; focus for Shi'a.	126
2574326282	umma	Community of the faithful within Islam; transcended old tribal boundaries to create degree of political unity.	127
2574331363	zakat	Tax for charity; obligatory for all Muslims.	128
2574334085	five pillars	The obligatory religious duties of all Muslims; confession of faith, prayer, fasting during ramadan, zakat, and hajj.	129
2574339315	Ramadan	Islamic month of religious observance requiring fasting from dawn to sunset.	130
2574342749	hajj	A Muslim's pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca, to worship Allah at the Ka'ba.	131
2574347660	caliph	The political and religious successor to Muhammad.	132
2574350219	Abu Bakr	(c. 573-634) One of Muhammad's earliest converts; succeeded Muhammad as first caliph of Islamic community.	133
2574355528	Ridda Wars	Wars that followed Muhammad's death in 632; resulted in the defeat of rival prophets and some of larger clans; restored unity of Islam.	134
2574360549	jihad	Struggle; often used for wars in defense of the faith [Islam].	135
2574365427	Nestorians	A christian sect found in Asia; tended to support Islamic invasions of this area as opposed to Byzantine rule; cut off from Europe by Muslim invasions.	136
2574369611	Uthman	Third caliph and member of Umayyad clan; murdered by mutinous warriors returning from Egypt; death set off civil war in Islam between followers of Ali and the Umayyad clan.	137
2574378678	Battle of Siffin	Fought in 657 between forces of Ali and the Umayyads; settled by negotiation that led to fragmentation of Ali's party.	138
2574384838	Mu'awiya	Leader of Umayyad clan; first Umayyad caliph following civil war with Ali.	139
2574388035	Sunnis	Political and theological division within Islam; supported the Umayyads and the appointment of a successor to the caliphate.	140
2574393378	Shi'a	Political and theological division within Islam; followers of Ali; supported the succession of the caliphate to a descendent of Muhammad.	141
2574399645	Damascus	Syrian city that was capital of Umayyad caliphate.	142
2574403420	mawali	Non-Arab converts to Islam.	143
2574405450	jizya	Head tax paid by all non-Muslims in Islamic territory.	144
2574409552	dhimmi	Literally "people of the book"; applied as an inclusive term to Jews and Christians in Islamic territories; later extended to Zoroastrians and even Hindus.	145
2574415558	hadiths	Traditions of the prophet.	146
2574418316	Abbasid	Dynasty that succeeded the Umayyads as caliphs within Islam; came to power in 750 CE.	147
2574422677	Baghdad	Capital of Abbasid dynasty located in Iraq near ancient Persian capital of Ctesiphon.	148
2574429535	wazir	Chief administrative official under the Abbasid caliphate; initially recruited from Persian provinces of empire.	149
2574435341	dhows	Arab sailing vessels with triangular or lateen sails; strongly influenced European ship design.	150
2574445639	ayan	The wealthy landed elite that emerged in the early decades of Abbasid rule.	151
2574458085	lateen	Triangular sails attached to the masts of dhows by long booms, or yard arms, which extended diagonally high across the fore and aft of the ship.	152
2574468838	al-Madhi	(ruled 775-785) Third of the Abbasid caliphs; attempted but failed to reconcile moderates among Shi'a to Abbasid dynasty; failed to resolve problems of succession.	153
2574479349	Harun al-Rashid	One of the great Islamic rulers of the Abbasid era.	154
2574485188	Buyids	Regional splinter dynasty of the mid-10th century; invaded and captured Baghdad; ruled Abbasid empire under title of sultan; retained Abbasids as figureheads.	155
2574493377	Seljuk Turks	Nomadic invaders from central Asia via Persia; staunch Sunnis; ruled in name of Abbasid caliphs from the mid-11th century.	156
2574504694	Crusades	Series or military adventures initially launched by Western Christians to free Holy Land from Muslims; temporarily succeeded in capturing Jerusalem and establishing Christian kingdoms; later used for other purposes such as commercial wars and extermination of heresy.	157
2574513800	Saladin	Muslim leader in the last decades of the 12th century; reconquered most of the crusader outposts for Islam.	158
2574521252	Ibn Khaldun	A Muslim historian; developed concept that dynasties of nomadic conquerors had a cycle of three generations - strong, weak, dissolute.	159
2574528740	ulama	Orthodox religious scholars within Islam, pressed for a more conservative and restrictive theology; increasingly opposed to non-Islamic ideas and scientific thinking.	160
2574538293	Mongols	Central Asian nomadic peoples; smashed Turko-Persian kingdoms; captured Baghdad in 1258 and killed the last Abbasid caliph.	161
2574545171	Chinggis Khan	Born in 1170s in decades following the death of Kabul Khan; elected Khan of all Mongol tribes in 1206; responsible for conquest of all Northern kingdoms of China, territories as far west as the Abbasid regions, died in 1227, prior to conquest of most of Islamic world.	162
2574558549	Hulegu	(1217 - 1265) Ruler of the Ilkhan khanate; grandson of Chinggis Khan; responsible for capture and destruction of Baghdad in 1257.	163
2574566180	Mamluks	Muslims slave warriors; established a dynasty on Egypt; defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260 and halted the Mongol advance.	164
2574575687	Muhammad ibn Qasim	(661-750) Arab general; conquered Sind in India; declared the region and the Indus valley to be of the Umayyad Empire.	165
2574583061	bhaktic cults	Hindu groups dedicated to gods and goddesses; stressed the importance of strong emotional bonds between devotees and the god or goddess who was the object of their veneration; most widely worshipped gods were Shiva and Vishnu.	166
2574592772	Shrivijaya	Trading empire centered on Malacca Straits between Mayala and Sumatra; controlled trade of empire; Buddhist government resistant to Muslim missionaries; fall opened up southeastern Asian to Muslim conversion.	167
2574607849	Malacca	Portuguese factory or fortified trade town located on the tip of the Malayan peninsula; traditionally a center of trade among the southeastern Asian islands.	168
2574615750	Demak	Most powerful of the trading states on the north coast of Java; converted to Islam and served as point of dissemination to other ports.	169
2574624206	stateless societies	African societies organized around kinship or other forms of obligation and lacking the concentration of political power and authority associated with states.	170
2574629651	Ifriqiya	The Arabic term for eastern North Africa.	171
2574633550	Maghrib	The Arabic term for western North Africa.	172
2574635959	Almohadis	A reformist movement among the Islamic Berbers of northern Africa; later that Almoravids; penetrated into Sub-Saharan Africa.	173
2574644140	Sundiata	The "Lion Prince"; a member of the Keita clan; created a unified state that became the Mali Empire; died about 1260.	174
2574651350	Timbuktu	Port city of Mali; located just off the flood plain on the great bend of the Niger River; population of 50,000; contained a library and university.	175
2574656489	Songhay	Successor state to Mali; dominated middle reaches of Niger Valley; formed an independent kingdom under a Berber dynasty; capital at Gao; reached imperial status under Sunni Ali (lived 1464-1492).	176
2574667486	Muhammad the Great	Extended the boundaries of the Songhay empire; Islamic ruler of the mid-16th century.	177
2574708685	Hausa	Peoples of Northern Nigeria; formed states following the demise of Songhay Empire that combined Muslim and pagan traditions.	178
2574714922	Sharia	Islamic law; defined among other things the patrilineal nature of Islamic inheritance.	179
2574720350	Zenj	Arabic term for the east african coast.	180
2574724212	Benin	Powerful city state (in present day Nigeria) which came into contact with the Portuguese in 1485 but remained relatively free of European influence; important commercial and political entity until the 19th century.	181
2574731880	Kongo	Kingdom, based on agriculture, formed on lower Congo River by the late 15th century; capital at Mbanza Kongo; ruled by hereditary monarchy.	182
2574740116	Great Zimbabwe	Bantu confederation of Shona speaking peoples located between Zambezi and Limpopo rivers; developed after 9th century; featured royal courts built of stone; created centralized state by 15th century; king took title of Mwene Mupata.	183