AP Psych Key Contributors Flashcards

9785270170	Alfred Adler	neo-Freudian • stressed importance of striving for superiority and power • believed social factors not sexual factors are more important in child development • birth order, inferiority and superiority complex, compensation	0
9785270171	Mary Ainsworth	• designed "strange" situation experiment to study infant attachment in which children were left alone in a playroom • secure attachment children played comfortably when mom was present, were distressed when mom left and would seek contact when mom returned • insecure attachment children were less likely to explore their surroundings, became upset when mom left and showed indifference when mom returned	1
9785270172	Gordon Allport	traits therapist • defined personality in terms of fundamental characteristic patterns • three levels of traits • cardinal - dominant traits of a person's behavior • central - dispositions found in most people • secondary - traits arising in specific situations	2
9785270173	Aristotle	• disagreed with Socrates and Plato, said knowledge is not preexisting, instead it grows from the experiences stored in our memories • knowledge comes in from the external world through the senses • believed the mind was in the heart	3
9785270174	Solomon Asch	• studied conformity and how group pressure distorted judgement • subjects conformed in their perception of line lengths when confederates in the group purposely gave the incorrect answers	4
9785270175	Eugene Aresinsky	• discovered how EEG patterns and eye movement change throughout sleep	5
9785270176	Richard Arkinson/Richard Shriffrin	• proposed original short-term/long term memory theory	6
9785270177	Francis Bacon	one of the founders of modern science • fascinated by the human mind and its failings • suggested humans try to find the degree of order and quality in things • stressed the use of research findings	7
9785270178	Alan Baddeley	added working memory, including a central executive, to Atkinson and Sheffrin's concept of shortterm memory	8
9785270179	Albert Bandura	• social-cognitive perspective (social learning) • suggested people learn through observation and modeling • researcher of observational learning by studying children imitating adults hitting a "Bobo doll" • suggested observers experience vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment when observing others • propose the social cognitive perspective in which behavior is influenced by the interaction between people's traits and their social context • reciprocal determinism; the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and the environment	9
9785270180	Diana Baumrind	• studied authoritarian, authoritative and permissive parenting styles • children with authoritarian parents usually have less social skill and self-esteem • children with authoritative parents usually have high self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence • children with permissive parents are usually more aggressive and immature	10
9785270181	Aaron Beck	developed a cognitive therapy for depression in which patients irrational and distorted thinking is questioned • cognitive triad • attributional style	11
9785270182	Buddha	• pondered how sensations and perceptions combine to form ideas	12
9785270183	Dimitry Belyaev/Lyudmila Trut	• domesticated foxes in a longitudinal study lasting over 30 generations	13
9785270184	Alfred Binet	• developed the first modern intelligence test for the French school system measuring a child's mental age (Stanford-Binet) • assumed intelligence increases with age	14
9785270185	Thomas Bouchard	studied twins separated at birth	15
9785270186	Edward Bradford Titchener	Wundt's student • introduced structuralism - aim to discover the structural elements of the mind • used introspection (looking inward) • focused on inner sensations, images, and feelings	16
9785270187	John Bransford/Marcia Johnson	• researched meaningfulness of memory	17
9785270188	Marian Breland/Keller Breland	in training animals, noted an instinctive drift where animals reverted to biologically predisposed patterns	18
9785270189	Isabel Briggs Myers/ Catherine Briggs	developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)	19
9785270190	Paul Broca	discovered Broca's area in the left side of the brain responsible for speaking	20
9785270191	Linda Buck/Richard Axel	• discovered receptor proteins in the nasal cavity which combine to trigger a specific smell	21
9785270192	John Cade	• discovered the use of lithium as a mood stabilizer	22
9785270193	Mary Whiton Calkins	• first women to complete the requirements for a PhD in psychology but was denied the degree by Harvard • became first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA)	23
9785270194	Walter Cannon/Philip Bard	developed the Cannon-Bard theory of emotions in which emotions and physiological changes happen simultaneously	24
9785270195	Raymond Cattell	• 16 Trait Personality Inventory/factor analysis • surface traits appear in clusters	25
9785270196	Fergus Craik/Endel Tulving	• researched different types (structural, phoneic, semantic) of encoding information and its effects on memory	26
9785270197	Tanya Chartrant/John Bargh	studied the Chamaeleon Effect where subjects in time mimic each other's behaviors	27
9785270198	Noam Chomsky	studied innate language development and universal grammar	28
9785270199	Kenneth Clark/Mimi Phillips Clark	• studied internalized anti-black prejudice by asking children whether they preferred a black or white doll	29
9785270200	Confucius	• stressed the power of ideas and of an educated mind	30
9785270201	Stanley Coren	studied how time changes influence accidents	31
9785270202	Paul Costa/Robert MaCrae	developed Big Five Trait theory of conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness and extraversion	32
9785270203	Mary Cover Jones/Joseph Wolpe	• helped develop exposure therapies including systematic desensitization using progressive relaxation to lower phobic fears	33
9785270204	John Darley/Bibb Latane	studied bystander intervention by staging emergencies	34
9785270205	Charles Darwin	• studied species variations • explained diversity in animals by proposing the evolutionary process of natural selection • believed that nature selects traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment • motivation-instincts	35
9785270206	Judy DeLoache	• researched children's reactions to a miniature version of a room to study symbolic thinking	36
9785270207	William Demen	• sleep deprivation researcher	37
9785270208	René Descartes	• French philosopher • agreed with Socrates and Plato that the existence of innate ideas and mind being "entirely distinct from body" and able to survive death • believed the immaterial mind and physical body communicate • coined phrase "I think, therefore, I am".	38
9785270209	Dorothea Dix	• advocated for more humane treatment of the mentally ill and the construction of mental hospitals	39
9785270210	Hermann Ebbinghaus	• developed the forgetting (retention) curve by learning nonsense syllables	40
9785270211	Paul Ekman	• studied the universality of facial expressions	41
9785270212	Albert Ellis	• creator of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) - a confrontational cognitive therapy the challenges people's self-defeating attitudes and assumptions that cause emotional problems	42
9785270213	Erik Erikson	developed eight stages of psychosocial development in which each stage centers around a task or conflict • trust versus mistrust (birth to 1) child learns to trust the world or not dependent upon whether their needs are met • autonomy versus shame (1 to 3) child learns to do things for themselves or to doubt their abilities • initiative versus guilt (3 to 6) child learns to carry out plans or feels guilty about their efforts to be independent • competence versus inferiority (6 to puberty) child learns the pleasure of applying themselves or feeling inferior • identity versus role confusion (teens into 20s) teens learn to form a personal identity or become confused about who they are • intimacy versus isolation (20s to early 40s) person learns to form close relationships or feels isolated • generativity versus stagnation (40s to 60s) person learns to discover a sense of contributing to the world or feels a lack of purpose • integrity versus despair (late 60s and up) after reflecting on their life, the persons feels a sense of satisfaction or failure	43
9785270214	Hans Eysenck/Sybil Eysenck	trait theorist • divided personality on two dimensions • extraversion versus introversion and emotional stability versus instability • challenge the effectiveness of psychotherapy by studying the improvement in untreated patients	44
9785270215	Gustav Fechner	developed the field of psychophysics • studied the concept of absolute threshold	45
9785270216	Leon Festinger	developed the cognitive dissonance theory where we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognition) are inconsistent with each other	46
9785270217	Margaret Floyd Washburn	first female to receive a PhD in psychology • second female president of the APA	47
9785270218	James Flynn	• discovered the Flynn effect which noted intelligence tests scores increased over decades therefore IQ tests need to be re-standardized periodically	48
9785270219	Otfrid Foerster/Wilder Penfield	• mapped the motor cortex	49
9785270220	Sigmund Freud (theory)	• father of the Psychoanalytic School of Psychology • divided the mind into the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind • emphasized the way our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior • divided personality into the • id: includes inborn drives and impulses following the pleasure principle • ego: tries to satisfy the demands of the id without going against the restrictions of the superego following the reality principle • superego: the moral/ideal self • proposed five psychosexual stages: • oral (0-18 m.) pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing, etc.) • anal (18-36 m.) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control • phallic (3-6 yrs) pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings (Oedipus and Electra complex) • latency (6 to puberty) a phase of dormant sexual feelings • genital (puberty on) maturation of sexual interests • fixation: a person remains at a psychosexual stage • developed how the ego protects itself through the use of defense mechanisms: • repression; banishes anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories to the unconscious mind • regression; retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated • reaction formation; switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites • projection; disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others • rationalization; offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for ones actions • displacement; shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more except the bull or less threatening object or person • sublimation; transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives • denial; refusing to believe were even perceive painful realities	50
9785270221	Sigmund Freud (therapy)	• developed psychoanalysis • assumed many psychological problems are the result of repressed impulses and conflicts in childhood • goal of treatment is to release energy previously devoted to id-ego-superego conflicts • Freudian slips: unintentional statements that Freud believed expressed repressed thoughts or feelings • free association; patients are encouraged to say out loud whatever comes to mind • resistance; the blocking of consciousness of anxiety laden materials • transference; the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked to other relationships • suggested anxiety is "free-floating" • distinguished between manifest content (apparent and remembered story line) and latent content (symbolic meaning) of dreams • proposed defense mechanism repression in which anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, or memories cannot reach consciousness	51
9785270222	Meyer Friedman/Ray Rosenman	found blood cholesterol levels change as the subject's stress levels change	52
9785270223	Gustav Fritsch/Eduard Hitzig	• discovered the motor cortex by electrically stimulating parts of an animal's cortex	53
9785270224	Phineas Gage	• railroad worker who, in 1848, had a tapping iron shot through his brain • he survived but developed emotional difficulties	54
9785270225	Franz Gall	proposed that phrenology (studying bumps on the skull) could reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits	55
9785270226	Francis Galton	• believed intelligence was purely hereditary • developed a rudimentary intelligence test	56
9785270227	John Garcia/Robert Koelling	• studied conditioned taste aversion in rats • suggested how people are biologically prepared to learning some associations over others	57
9785270228	Howard Gardner	proposed eight distinct intelligences: naturalistic, linguistic, logical mathematical, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, body kinesthetic, and spatial	58
9785270229	Eleanor Gibson/Richard Walk	• researched innate depth perception in infants using a visual cliff	59
9785270230	G. Stanley Hall	first president of the American Psychological Association (APA) • established the first formal United States psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University	60
9785270231	Harry Harlow/Margaret Harlow	studied attachment by observing how infant monkeys responded to two artificial mothers (cloth and wire) • found infant monkeys preferred the cloth mother over the wire mother • studied monkeys raised in complete isolation who later were unable to interact with other monkeys	61
9785270232	Starke Hathaway	developed the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and empirically derived personality tes	62
9785270233	Fritz Heider	• Gestalt theories • balance theory • proposed attribution theory in which people's behaviors are the result of the situation or the person's disposition	63
9785270234	Hermann von Helmholtz/Thomas Young	• responsible for Young Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory • suggested the retina includes three types (red, green and blue) of color receptors	64
9785270235	Hermann von Helmholtz	developed place theory detailing how hearing different pitches involves triggering different places along the cochlea	65
9785270236	Ewald Hering	responsible for the opponent-process theory by studying afterimages • retina includes three sets (red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black) of opponent retinal processes	66
9785270237	Ernest Hilgard	dissociative theory - hypnosis involves both social influence and a dual processing state where consciousness is split allowing thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously called dissociation	67
9785270238	Karen Horney	neo-Freudian • suggested childhood anxiety triggers our desire for love and security • among the first to challenge the obvious male bias in Freud's theories • believed people feel anxious because they feel isolated and helpless in a hostile world.	68
9785270239	Carol Izard	• facial expressiveness • facial expressions of emotions are constant across cultures	69
9785270240	William James	philosopher - psychologist • functionalist • wrote one of the first introductory psychology texts, Principles of Psychology	70
9785270241	William James/Carl Lange	• developed the James-Lange theory of emotions suggesting emotions are the result of physiological changes	71
9785270242	Irving Janis	studied groupthink; a mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives	72
9785270243	Carl Jung	neo-Freudian • divided the unconscious mind into the collective and personal unconscious	73
9785270244	Immanuel Kant	maintained that knowledge comes from our inborn ways of organizing sensory experience	74
9785270245	Ancel Keys	researched motivation by reducing food levels of subjects which resulted in a lowering of the basal metabolic rate	75
9785270246	Kurt Koffka/Max Wertheimer	co-founder Gestalt Psychology	76
9785270247	Lawrence Kohlberg	• by asking subjects to respond to moral dilemmas, developed three levels of moral thinking • preconventional morality; the person's focus is self-interest and follows rules to avoid punishment or gain rewards • conventional morality; the person's focus is to uphold laws and rules to gain social approval and/or maintain social order • ostconventional morality; the person's focus reflects a basic belief system of self-defined ethical principles	77
9785270248	Elizabeth Kubler-Ross	stages of death and dying	78
9785270249	Konrad Lorenz	• studied imprinting in ducklings • studied instinctive behavior in animals • critical periods • motivation-instinct theory	79
9785270250	Richard Lazarus	• suggested that cognitive appraisal, at times, is without our awareness	80
9785270251	Joseph LeDoux	suggested some emotional responses go directly to the amygdala bypassing any cognitive appraisal in the cortex	81
9785270252	John Locke	• British philosopher • suggested at birth the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) on which experience writes • it is through our experiences we learn to perceive the world • helped form modern empiricism	82
9785270253	Elizabeth Loftus	studied how eyewitness memories can be influenced by questioning • researched how information can be incorporated into one's memory (misinformation effect)	83
9785270254	Abraham Maslow	humanist • overall need to fulfill one's potential • believed psychology should study healthy and creative people rather than troubled ones • developed a hierarchy of needs theory (physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization, and self-transcendence needs) • drew attention to ways the current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential • stressed the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied	84
9785270255	William Masters/Virginia Johnson	• developed the sexual response cycle (excitement phase, plateau phase orgasm, and resolution phase) measuring the physiological changes during sexual activity • researched sexual dysfunctions and potential treatments	85
9785270256	Harry McGurk/John MacDonald	developed the McGurk Effect in which a subject listening to a sound while watching someone say a different sound hear a different third sound	86
9785270257	Donald Meichenbaum	developed stress inoculation training in which peoples encourages people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations	87
9785270258	Ronald Melzack/Patrick Wall	• developed gate-control theory of pain in which the spinal cord contains nerve fibers that conduct pain signals	88
9785270259	Stanley Milgram	studied obedience where subjects, following the orders of an experimenter, "shocked" a confederate	89
9785270260	George Miller	• proposed short-term memory is limited to seven +/- two bits of information	90
9785270261	Fiuseppe Moruzzi/Horace Magoun	• by electrically stimulating and severing parts of a cat's brain, discovered the reticular formation enables arousal	91
9785270262	Henry Murray	• developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in which subjects made up a story to ambiguous figures	92
9785270263	David Napolitan/George Goethals	• demonstrated the fundamental attribution error where people, analyzing others' behavior, tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition	93
9785270264	Ivan Pavlov	discovered classical conditioning in his studies of the digestion in dogs	94
9785270265	Jean Piaget	used case studies to research children's thinking • studied cognitive development in children • developed concepts of: • schema - concept or framework that organizes and interprets information • assimilation - interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas • accommodation - adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information • developed four stages of cognitive development: • sensorimotor (birth - 2) experience the world through senses and actions • object permanence; the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived • preoperational (2 - 6/7) representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical reasoning • egocentrism; taking another's point of view • concrete operational (7 - 11) thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations • conservation; understanding properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in forms	95
9785270266	Philippe Pinel	• suggested abnormal behavior was not due to demon possession by the sickness of the mind • advocated a "moral (more humane) treatment" of patients	96
9785270267	Plato	• concluded, along with Socrates, that mind is separable from the body and continues after the body dies (dualism) • believed knowledge is innate—born within us • located the mind in the spherical head	97
9785270268	James Randi	used and an empirical approach to test the paranormal	98
9785270269	Robert Rescorla/Allan Wagner	contingency model • having shocks proceeded by tones and lights, found animals can learn the predictability of an event	99
9785270270	Carl Rogers	humanist • believed people are basically good and endowed with self-actualizing tendencies • developed person centered perspective (also called client centered perspective) • a growth promoting climate requires three conditions • genuineness; people are genuine and open with their feelings • acceptance; people show unconditional positive regard towards others (an attitude of total acceptance towards another person) • empathy; they share an mirror others' feelings and reflect their meanings • drew attention to ways the current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential • stressed the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied • develop client centered therapy which focuses on the person's conscious self-perceptions • a nondirective therapy in which the therapist listens without judging or interpreting • stressed therapist should exhibit acceptance, genuineness, and empathy • stressed active listening; empathetic listening to which the listener echoes restates and clarifies what the client says • therapist should show unconditional positive regard; a caring accepting non-judgmental attitude	100
9785270271	David Rosenhan	studied the biasing power of labels by having psychologically healthy subjects admitted to a mental institution	101
9785270272	Stanley Schachter/Jerome Singer	• developed the two-factor theory of emotions in which emotions are the result of physiological changes and a cognitive appraisal • injected subjects with epinephrine and placed them in rooms with a euphoric or irritated confederate	102
9785270273	Martin Seligman	• has called for research on human strengths and human flourishing • positive psychology: the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive • researched learned helplessness in animals	103
9785270274	Hans Selye	• developed the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) in reaction to stress including the alarm, resistance and exhaustion phase • concluded prolong stress can damage individuals	104
9785270275	B. F. Skinner	modern behaviorist • studied operant conditioning using an operant chamber (Skinner Box) • developed four schedules of reinforcement (fixed and variable ratio)(fixed and variable interval) • believed external influences shape behavior NOT internal thoughts or feelings	105
9785270276	Charles Spearman	• proposed a general intelligence (g) • helped develop factor analysis	106
9785270277	Roger Sperry/Michael Gazzaniga	• pioneered and studied split brain research helping to understand the functioning of both hemispheres	107
9785270278	William Stern	derived the formula for intelligence quotient (IQ) as mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100 • an IQ of 100 is considered average	108
9785270279	Robert Sternberg	• proposed a triarchic theory of three intelligences - analytical (academic problem solving) intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence • developed five (expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation and a creative environment) components of creativity	109
9785270280	Lewis Terman	revised Binet's test (Stanford-Binet intelligence test) for use in the United States • conducted a longitudinal study of high intelligence children	110
9785270281	Edward L. Thorndike	behaviorists • studied how cats got out of a "puzzle box" • developed law of effect - behavior is controlled by it's consequence	111
9785270282	Edward Chase Tolman/CH Honzik	studied rats exploring mazes without reinforcements (latent learning) resulting in the rats developing cognitive maps of the maze	112
9785270283	Lev Vygotsky	stressed how children develop through interactions with the social environment • zone of proximal development; a zone between what a child can and can't do	113
9785270284	John B. Watson	father of behaviorism • dismissed introspection • suggested psychology study how people respond to stimuli (behavior) rather than inner thoughts, feelings, and motives • redefine psychology as the "the scientific study of observable behavior" • with his associate (Rosalie Rayner), conditioned "Baby Albert" to fear a white rat	114
9785270285	Ernst Weber	developed Weber's law regarding the constant percentage of the difference threshold	115
9785270286	David Wechsler	• developed the Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC) • the WAIS contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests	116
9785270287	Carl Wernicke	discovered Wernicke's area responsible for speech comprehension	117
9785270288	Wilhelm Wundt	• the father of psychology • established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany • measured the time lag between people's hearing a ball hit a platform and their pressing a telegraph key • focused on inner sensations, images, and feelings (introspection)	118
9785270289	Yerkes & Dodson	Yerkes Dodson Law - ideal level of arousal depends on the complexity of a task • if the task is more complex your performance will be better at lower levels of arousal • if the task is simple it is best for arousal level to be high	119
9785270290	Philip Zimbardo	conducted studies in role playing where college students played the roles of prison guards and prisoners (Stanford Prison Experiment)	120