AP Test Review Flashcards

6548873942	psychology	The science of behavior and mental processes	0
6548892956	positive psychology	-a field of research that focuses on people's positive experiences and characteristics, such as happiness, optimism, and resilience.	1
6548897882	biological psychologists	-they analyze the biological factors influencing behavior and mental processes.	2
6548902625	developmental psychologists	-they seek to understand, describe, and explore how behavior and mental processes change over a lifetime.	3
6548907773	cognitive psychologists	-they study the mental processes underlying judgment, decision making, problem solving, imagining, and other aspects of human thought or cognition. Also called experimental psychologists.	4
6548911031	clinical & counseling psychologists	-they seek to assess, understand, and change abnormal behavior.	5
6548915496	educational psychologists	-they study methods by which instructors teach and students learn and who apply their results to improving those methods	6
6550430471	forensic psychologists	-they assist in jury selection, evaluate defendants mental competence to stand trial, and deal with other issues involving psychology and the law.	7
6550436171	psychodynamic approach	-a view developed by Freud that emphasizes the interplay of unconscious mental processes in determining human thought, feelings, and behavior.	8
6550455551	behavioral approach	-an approach to psychology emphasizing that human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has learned, especially from rewards and punishments.	9
6627567570	structuralism	-an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind	10
6627569777	functionalism	-a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function -how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish	11
6627573592	humanistic psychology	-historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth	12
6627578062	cognitive neuroscience	-the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) linked with cognition.	13
6627581855	nature-nurture debate	-the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. -Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture	14
6632773075	biopsychosocial approach	-an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis	15
6632775654	biological psychology	-a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes	16
6632777481	evolutionary psychology	-the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection	17
6632779133	psychodynamic therapy	-therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight	18
6632780222	behavioral psychology	-the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning	19
6632781553	cognitive psychology	-the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating	20
6632782530	social-cultural psychology	-the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking	21
6632784301	psychometrics	-the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits	22
6632785499	basic research	-pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base	23
6632786357	developmental psychology	-a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span	24
6632786835	educational pscyhology	-the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning	25
6632788702	personality psychology	-the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting	26
6632789604	social psychology	-the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another	27
6632790688	applied psychology	-scientific study that aims to solve practical problems	28
6632792861	industrial-organizational psychology	-application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces	29
6632793912	counseling psychology	-a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being	30
6632795294	clinical psychology	-a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders	31
6632796300	psychiatry	-a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy	32
6632800538	hindsight bias	-the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it	33
6632802995	theory	-an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations	34
6632803644	hypothesis	-a testable prediction, often implied by a theory	35
6632805541	operational definition	-a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures	36
6632806755	replication	-repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances	37
6632807515	case study	-an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles	38
6632808594	survey	-a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them	39
6632809570	population	-all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study	40
6632810264	random sample	-a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion	41
6632811864	naturalistic observation	-observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation	42
6632813025	correlation	-a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other	43
6632814102	correlation coefficient	-a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)	44
6632815640	scatterplot	-a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables	45
6632817086	illusory correlation	-the perception of a relationship where none exists	46
6632818083	experiment	-research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process	47
6632821769	random assignment	-assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups	48
6632824149	double-blind procedure	-experimental procedure in which both the research participant and the research staff are ignorant about whether the participants have received the treatment or the placebo	49
6632825449	placebo	-experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.	50
6632826424	experimental group	-in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable	51
6632828188	control group	-in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment	52
6632829213	independent variable	-the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied	53
6632829214	dependent variable	-the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable	54
6632830060	confounding variable	-a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment	55
6632875604	mode	-the most frequently occurring score in a distribution	56
6632875605	mean	-the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores	57
6632877829	median	-the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it	58
6632879975	range	-the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution	59
6632880877	standard deviation	-a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score	60
6632881882	normal curve	-the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes	61
6632882746	statistical significance	-a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance	62
6632886636	culture	-the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next	63
6632887498	informed consent	-an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate	64
6632888545	debriefing	-the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants	65
6632899697	selective attention	-involves filtering out irrelevant information around us and focusing on the things that demand our attention -cocktail party effect is an example	66
6632907304	depth perception	-the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions, coupled with the ability to gauge how far away an object is -size, and distance are ascertained through both monocular (one eye) and binocular (two eyes) cues -monocular vision is poor at determining depth -visual cliff was used to test in infants	67
6632923837	perceptual adaptation	-the ability to adjust to an altered perceptual reality - in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field (as when wearing visual displacement goggles).	68
6632932349	Gestalt Grouping Principles	-the gestalt principles of similarity, proximity, continuity, and common fate -the "laws" suggest how our brains prefer to group stimulus elements together to form a percept -there are five: 1. similarity 2. proximity 3. continuity 4. closure 5. connectedness	69
6632937655	similarity	-gestalt principle that we tend to group similar objects	70
6632940701	proximity	-gestalt principle that we tend to group objects together when they are near each other	71
6632942223	continuity	-gestalt grouping principle that we tend to perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones	72
6632948120	connectedness	-gestalt grouping principle that when uniform (in color or texture)objects are linked (no space exists between them) we perceive them as a single unit	73
6632956539	closure	-gestalt grouping principle that we fill in "gaps" to create a full, complete object	74
6632965829	figure-ground	-a gestalt perceptual phenomenon -the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings	75
6633000677	grouping	-a gestalt perceptual phenomenon -the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups	76
6633004266	visual capture	-a gestalt perceptual phenomenon -tendency for vision to dominate the other senses	77
6635018590	Ivan Pavlov	-a Russian psychologist that developed classical conditioning theory of learning -conducted famous salivating dogs experiment to research classical conditioning	78
6635022614	classical conditioning	-a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events	79
6635030163	stimulus generalization	-in classical conditioning, occurs when an organism displays a conditioned response (CR) to a stimulus that is similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus (CS)	80
6635032388	stimulus discrimination	-the leaned ability to distinguish between a conditioned (CS) stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)	81
6635038945	John Watson	-an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism -conducted an experiment with a little boy named Little Albert which dealt with classical conditioning -believed psychology should be the science of observable behavior	82
6635270640	reinforcer	-something that increases the likelihood that a specific behavior or response will occur	83
6635279719	partial reinforcement	-a pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced -partial reinforcement is on a variable schedule whereas continuous reinforcement is on a fixed schedule	84
6635290954	positive reinforcement	-occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event	85
6635296470	negative reinforcement	-occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event	86
6635309782	primary reinforcer	-reinforcer such as water, food, or sex	87
6635312276	secondary reinforcer	-reinforcer whose value allows an individual to acquire other reinforcers like food and water; examples: money, credit cards	88
6635317338	schedules of reinforcement	-the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will continue -four types of schedules: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval -interval means over a time and ratio means an act; -variable schedules are more effective in learning	89
6635333446	punishment	-any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that behavior will occur	90
6635345615	positive punishment	-focuses on decreasing the rate of any specific undesired behavior from an individual. -present a certain negative consequence to the individual once an undesired behavior has been exhibited -when any individual is subjected to negative consequence, the individual is less likely to repeat the same behavior in the future.	91
6635349656	negative punishment	-focuses on decreasing the rate of any specific undesired behavior from an individual. -remove a certain favorite or desired item from the individual's life. -when removed the undesired behavior is exhibited, and there is less chance of the behavior occurring again in the future.	92
6635376855	BF Skinner	-purposed operant conditioning -deals with operants - intentional actions that have an effect on the surrounding environment. -believed external forces controlled human behavior -Skinner box	93
6635400448	over justification effect	-when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task	94
6635420300	neuron	-a nerve cell -the basic building block of the nervous system	95
6635422127	sensory neurons	-neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord	96
6635424335	motor neurons	-neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands	97
6635479483	dendrites	-the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body	98
6635487047	action potential	-a neural impulse -a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon -example; flushing a toilet	99
6635490578	refractory period	-a period immediately following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation -example; filling the toilet bowl up	100
6635503927	resting potential	-neuron is charged but waiting for the next action potential signal -example; waiting to flush again	101
6635544729	all-or-none-response	-when the depolarizing current exceeds the threshold, a neuron will fire -if the depolarizing current fails to exceed the threshold, a neuron will not fire. -intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the axon.	102
6635554845	neurotransmitters	-chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons -when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse	103
6635563659	sympathetic nervous system	-the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations -triggers fight-or-flight reaction	104
6635565551	parasympathetic nervous system	-the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy -calms the fight-or-flight response	105
6635761705	plasticity	-concept that some of our brain will attempt to reroute itself if damaged.	106
6635769601	hippocampus	-part of the limbic system; involved in memory	107
6635781978	belief perseverance	-clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited	108
6635796847	representativeness heuristic	-judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information	109
6635812530	Stanford-Binet intelligence test	-the test reported intelligence as a calculated IQ score -developed to identify children likely to have difficulty in school	110