AP Psychology Unit 2 Flashcards

8852318435	hindsight bias	The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it- "I knew it all along"	0
8852318436	critical thinking	Is rationally deciding what to believe or what to do. When one rationally decides something, he or she evaluates information to see if it makes sense, whether it's coherent, and whether the argument is well founded on evidence.	1
8852318437	validity	the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to do	2
8852318438	theory	A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data	3
8852318439	hypothesis	A testable prediction, often implied by a theory	4
8852318440	operational definition	A statement of the procedures used to define research variables	5
8852318441	replication	replicate the original study	6
8852318442	case study	An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.	7
8852318443	survey	A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act.	8
8852318444	population	the whole group that you want to study and describe	9
8852318445	random sample	A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion	10
8852318446	sampling bias	flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample	11
8852318447	naturalistic observation	Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation	12
8852318448	correlation	A measure of the relationship between two variables	13
8852318449	correlation coefficient	A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)	14
8852318450	scatterplot	A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.	15
8852318451	illusory correlation	The perception of a relationship where none exists	16
8852318452	experiment	A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process	17
8852318453	random assignment	Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups	18
8852318454	double-blind study	An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo	19
8852318455	placebo effect	Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.	20
8852318456	experimental group	A subject or group of subjects in an experiment that is exposed to the factor or condition being tested.	21
8852318457	control group	In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.	22
8852318458	independent variable	(statistics) a variable whose values are independent of changes in the values of other variables	23
8852318459	confounding variable	A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.	24
8852318460	dependent varibale	the outcome factor the cariable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variables --what you are measuring (ex. obesity rates)	25
8852318461	mode	Measure of central tendency that uses most frequently occurring score.	26
8852318462	mean	Average	27
8852318463	median	A measure of center in a set of numerical data. The median of a list of values is the value appearing at the center of a sorted version of the list - or the mean of the two central values if the list contains an even number of values.	28
8852318464	range	Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.	29
8852318465	standard deviation	A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.	30
8852318466	normal curve	the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.	31
8852318467	statistical significance	A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance	32
8852318468	culture	Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.	33
8852318469	informed consent	A written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.	34
8852318470	debriefing	A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study	35
8852318471	sample	A part of the population you are studying.	36
8852318472	how does overconfidence relate to everyday thinking?	we tend to be more confident than correct and believe we know more than we actually do	37
8852318473	how do hindsight bias and overconfidence relate to intuition?	leads us to overestimate our intuition	38
8852318474	3 main components of scientific attitude	curiosity skepticism humility	39
8852318475	how do operational definitions keep biases in check?	make sure that everyone is going by the same standards and is not changing how they see the data being studied	40
8852318476	a theory is useful if :	- it effectively organizes a range of self-reports / observations and leads to a clear hypothesis that anyone can use to check a theory - it stimulates research to lead to a revised theory that better organizes and predicts what we know	41
8852318477	wording effect of a survey	the way a question or situation is presented affects how people feel about the matter (ex. better wording = more desired results)	42
8852318478	case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observations do not explain behavior, but rather ________ behavior	describes	43
8852318479	positive correlation	two variable rise and fall together, such as height and weight	44
8852318480	negative correlation	variables are related inversely, one goes up and the other goes down, such as inner speech and psychological distress	45
8852318481	1 standard deviation	68%	46
8852318482	2 standard deviations	95%	47
8852318483	3 standard deviations	99%	48
8852318486	descriptive statistics	numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation	49
8852318487	measures of central tendency	refers to how the data measures the center of a set of data	50
8852318488	skewed graph	mode, median, and mean are different	51
8852318489	normal graph	mode, median, and mean are same	52
8852318490	positive skew	high outlier	53
8852318491	negative skew	low outlier	54
8852318492	measures of variability	depict diversity of the distribution (range, standard deviation)	55
8852318493	higher standard deviation =	scores are less similar	56
8852318494	normal curve		57
8852318495	inferential statistics	numerical data that allows one to generalize (T-tests, chi square, ANOVAS)	58
8852318496	descriptive stats vs. inferential stats	d : allows us to summarize info about the sample studied i : determine whether or not findings can be applied to a larger population from which the sample was selected	59
8852318497	statistically significant	how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance (p-value) averages are reliable differences between averages is relatively large implies importance of results	60
8852318498	culture (behavior)	enduring behaviors ideas, attitudes, and how people perceive different situations, such as body shape, early sex, etc.	61
8852318499	collectivist culture	group goals	62
8852318500	individualist cultures	individual goals	63
8852318501	ethics in research	informed consent protection from harm/discomfort maintain confidentiality debriefing	64
8852318502	IRB (Institutional Review Board)	any academic research needs to be proposed to their IRB, review for ethical violations and/or procedural errors	65