AP Biology Flashcards

7664667657	Carolus Linnaeus	grouped similar species into increasingly general categories reflecting what he believed to be the pattern of their creation, developed taxonomy and binomial nomenclature	0
7664677759	taxonomy	branch of biology dedicated to the naming and classification of all forms of life	1
7664688170	binomial nomenclature	two-part naming system that includes organism's genus and species	2
7664700454	Georges Cuvier	French geologist opposed to the idea of evolution and was influential in the way that he said that catastrophic/world changing events happened suddenly and this explains boundaries	3
7664708944	Charles Lyell	English geologist who was homies with Charles Darwin, realized that the earth must be VERY old	4
7664722051	Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck	developed early theory of evolution based on principles of use and disuse and inheritance of acquired characteristics	5
7664737347	use and disuse	the idea that parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate	6
7664744204	inheritance of acquired characteristics	assumes that characteristics acquired during an organism's lifetime could be passed on to the next generation	7
7664757019	Charles Darwin	traveled on HMS Beagle which led to his theory of evolution by natural selection	8
7664764284	natural selection	-individuals in a pop. vary in traits, many of which are heritable -a pop. can produce way more offspring than can survive in the environment -individuals w/ inherited traits that are better suited to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce -evolution occurs when unequal reproductive success of individuals lead to adaptations to their environment, and over time, the organisms become better suited to their environment	9
7664801087	adaptations	heritable characteristics that enhance organisms' ability to survive and reproduce in specific environments	10
7664812960	artificial selection	process by which species are modified by humans	11
7664819427	homology	characteristics in related species have an underlying similarity even though they have very different functions	12
7664828708	homologous structures	anatomical signs of evolution	13
7664833009	embryonic homologies	comparison of early stages of animal development reveals many anatomical homologies in embryos that are not visible in adult organisms	14
7664851385	vestigial organs	structures of marginal, if any, importance to the organism (basically remnants of structures that were important to organisms' ancestors)	15
7664863029	molecular homologies	shared characteristics on the molecular level	16
7664868670	convergent evolution	when two organisms develop similarities as they adapt to similar environmental conditions	17
7664887150	The Fossil Record	fossils show that evolutionary changes have occurred over time and the origin of major new groups of organisms	18
7664894972	biogeography	the geographic distribution of species	19
7724449157	continental drift (and the breakup of Pangaea)	can explain the similarity of species on continents that are distant today	20
7664901624	endemic species	species found at a certain geographic location and nowhere else	21
7664913308	mutations	random changes in the DNA, the only source of new genes and new alleles	22
7664919502	point mutations	changes in the nucleotide base in a gene, can have a significant impact on phenotype	23
7664931367	chromosomal mutations	delete, disrupt, duplicate, or rearrange many loci at once, usually harmful but not always	24
7724477433	3 mechanisms for shuffling alleles in sexual reproduction	-crossing over -independent assortment -fertilization	25
7664943762	population genetics	study of how populations change genetically over time	26
7664951154	population	a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring	27
7664962855	gene pool	all of the alleles at all loci in all the members of a population	28
7664971785	Hardy-Weinberg principle	describes a population that is not evolving	29
7664978968	five conditions for H-W Equilibrium	-no change in allelic frequency due to mutation -random mating -no natural selection -the pop. size must be extremely large (no genetic drift) -no gene flow (emigration, immigration, transfer of pollen, etc.)	30
7724491627	Hardy-Weinburg equation	p² + 2pq + q² = 1 p + q = 1 p = frequency of A (dominant allele) q = frequency of a (recessive allele) p² = frequency of AA (homozygous dominant) 2pq = frequency of Aa (heterozygous) q² = frequency of aa (homozygous recessive)	31
7721835873	the three major factors that alter allele frequencies and bring about the most evolutionary change	-natural selection -genetic drift -gene flow	32
7721842768	genetic drift	unpredictable fluctuation in allele frequencies from one generation to the next. The smaller the pop., the greater likelihood of drift	33
7721852292	founder effect	a few individuals become isolated from a larger pop. and establish a new population whose gene pool is not reflective of source population	34
7722848352	bottleneck effect	a sudden change in the environment drastically reduces the size of a population	35
7722854675	gene flow	a population gains or loses alleles by genetic additions or subtractions from the population	36
7722862696	relative fitness	the contribution an organism makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other members, measured only by reproductive success	37
7722882183	directional selection	shifts the overall makeup of the population by favoring variants that are at one extreme of the distribution	38
7722891038	disruptive selection	favors variants at both ends of the distribution	39
7722894630	stabilizing selection	removes extreme variants from the population and preserves intermediate types	40
7722929596	diploidy	because most eukaryotes are diploid, they are capable of hiding genetic variation (recessive alleles) from selection	41
7722900016	sexual selection	individuals w/ certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates, can result in sexual dimorphism	42
7722908240	sexual dimorphism	a difference between the two sexes in secondary sexual characteristics such as differences in size, color, ornamentation, and behavior	43
7722920146	heterozygote advantage	individuals who are heterozygous at a certain locus have an advantage for survival	44
7724543111	why natural selection can't produce perfect organisms	-selection can only edit existing variations -evolution is limited by historical constraints -adaptations are often compromises -chance, natural selection, and the environment interact	45
7722935224	speciation	process by which new species arise	46
7725336101	prezygotic barriers	prevent mating or hinder fertilization if mating has occurred. Ex/ habitat isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation	47
7724564646	prezygotic and postzygotic	2 types of barriers that prevent members of different species from producing offspring that can also successfully reproduce examples of prezygotic barriers: -habitat isolation -behavioral isolation -temporal isolation -mechanical isolation -gametic isolation examples of postzygotic barriers: -reduced hybrid viability -reduced hybrid fertility -hybrid breakdown	48
7725341921	habitat isolation	two species live in different habitats so they won't encounter each other and mate	49
7725424957	behavioral isolation	species don't respond to mating signals/behaviors used by other species	50
7725446664	temporal isolation	species may breed at different times of the day/year and this prevents them from mating	51
7725455336	mechanical isolation	species may be anatomically incompatible	52
7725462365	gametic isolation	gametes from two species might be unable to fuse to form a zygote	53
7722937622	microevolution	the change in genetic makeup of a pop. from generation to generation	54
7722945025	macroevolution	the broad pattern of evolutionary change above the species level, used to define higher taxa	55
7722957784	biological species concept	defines a species as a group of pops. whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring but are unable to produce viable, fertile offspring w/ other groups	56
7722966765	reproductive isolation	the existence of biological barriers that impede members of two species from producing viable, fertile offspring	57
7724639757	habitat isolation	2 species can live in the sam geographic area but not in the same habitat - prevents them from mating because they will not encounter each other	58
7724655937	behavioral isolation	some species use certain signals or types of behavior to attract mates & these signals are unique to their species - members of other species do not respond to the signals so mating does not occur	59
7724704103	temporal isolation	species may breed at different times of da, different seasons, or different years, and this can prevent them from mating	60
7724721296	mechanical isolation	species may be anatomically incompatible	61
7724725410	gametic isolation	even if the gametes of 2 species do meet, they may be unable to fuse to form a zygote	62
7724751233	reduced hybrid viability	when a zygote if formed, genetic incompatibility may cause development to cease	63
7724762001	reduced hybrid fertility	even if the 2 species produce a viable offspring, reproductive isolation is still occurring if the offspring is sterile and can't reproduce	64
7724777699	hybrid breakdown	sometimes 2 species mate and produce viable, fertile hybrids - however, when the hybrids mate, their offspring are weak or sterile	65
7724792938	allopatric speciation	a population forms a new species because it's geographically isolated from the parent population - when the population is geographically isolated gene flow is interrupted, resulting in reproductive isolation -geologic events/processes (emergence of a mountain range, formation of a land bridge, evaporation of a large lake that produces several small lakes) can fragment a population resulting in geographic isolation of new populations	66
7724879633	sympatric speciation	a small part of the population forms a new species w/o being geographically separated from the parent population -can result from part of the population switching to a new habitat, part of the population switching to a different resource (such as food), or an accident during cell division (extra set of chromosomes - polyploid)	67
7724909188	polyploid	an accident during cell division can result in an extra set of chromosomes (polyploid) - they cannot breed w/ diploid member and produce fertile offspring -mechanism that can lead to sympatric speciation -rare in animals but very common in plants	68
7724936043	adaptive radiation	occurs when many new species arise from a single common ancestor - the new species fill different ecological niches in their communities -catastrophes such as volcanoes, landslides, or mass extinctions open new niches	69
7724959497	gradualism	proposes that species descended from a common ancestor and gradually diverge more and more in morphology as they acquire unique adaptations	70
7724975574	punctuated equilibrium	term used to describe periods of parent stasis punctuated by sudden change observed in the fossil record	71
7724991818	current hypothesis about how life arose on earth	-abiotic (nonliving) synthesis of small organic molecules (amino acids & nitrogenous) -the joining of these small molecules into macromolecules (proteins & nucleic acids) -the packaging of these molecules into protocells whose internal chemistry differed from that of the external environment -the origin of self-replicating molecules that made inheritance possible	72
7725034630	protocells	membrane enclosed droplets	73
7725050105	when was the earth formed?	about 4.6 billion years ago	74
7725052456	when did life emerge on earth?	about 3.8 billion years agp	75
7725065354	Oparin & Haldane	hypothesized that the early atmosphere (thick w/ water vapor, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and hydrogen sulfide) provided w/ energy from lightning and UV radiation, could have formed organic compounds (primitive "soup" from which all life arose	76
7725101514	Miller & Urey	tested Oparin & Haldane's hypothesis and produced a variety of amino acids - Miller/Urey types experiments show that the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules is possible under various assumptions about the composition of the early atmosphere	77
7725292501	self-replicating RNA	*first genetic material plays a central role in protein synthesis & can also carry out a number of enzyme-like catalytic functions	78
7725309197	ribosomes	RNA catalysts	79
7725312605	fossil record	sequence in which fossils appear in the layers of sedimentary rock that constitute the Earth's surface	80
7725331597	paleontologists	study the fossil record	81
7725335733	relative dating	uses the order of rock strata to determine the relative age of fossils -oldest fossils are deposited in the lower strata	82
7725351784	radiometric dating	uses the decay of radioactive isotopes to determine the age of the rocks or fossils - based on the rate of decay/half-life of the isotope	83
7725377656	half-life	time necessary for 50% of the parent isotope to decay	84
7725386452	prokaryotes	earliest living organisms	85
7725400108	when did eukaryotes appear?	about 2.1 billion years ago	86
7725404939	endosymbiotic hypothesis	proposes that mitochondria & plastids (chloroplasts) were formally small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells	87
7725424970	evidence for the endosymbiotic hypothesis	-both organelles have enzymes & transport systems homologous to those found in the plasma membranes of living prokaryotes -both replicate by a splitting process similar to prokaryotes -both contain a single, circular DNA molecule, not associated w/ histone proteins -both have their own ribosomes, which can translate their DNA into proteins	88
7725459999	when did multicellular eukaryotes evolve?	about 1.2 billion years ago	89
7725474677	when did plants, fungi, and animals begin the appear on Earth (colonization of the land)?	about 500 million years ago	90
7725476763	continental drift	the movement of Earth's continents on great plates that float on the hot, underlying mantle -example: San Andreas fault (2 plates sliding past each other) -mountains uplift where plates collide -can help explain the disjunct geographic distribution of some species	91
7725504446	mass extinctions	loss of large #'s of species in a short period of time - have resulted from global environmental changes that have caused the rate of extinction to increase dramatically -can drastically alter a complex ecological community -open niches that a new species can occupy	92
7725527181	adaptive radiations	periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill different ecological niches -occurred after the 5 major extinctions -can occur after major evolutionary innovations	93
7725548888	evo-devo	field of study in which evolutionary biology and developmental biology converge - illuminates how slight genetic divergences can be magnified into major morphological differences between species "evo" = evolution "devo" = development	94
7725584703	exaptations	structures that evolve in one context but become co-opted for another function	95
7726554535	Heterochrony	evolutionary change in the rate or timing of developmental events. -Ex) decreased rate in leg growth leads to loss of hind limbs in whales	96
7726591451	Homeotic genes	regulatory genes that determine location and organization of body parts	97
7726596069	Hox genes	a class of homeotic genes that have a big effect on morphology and therefor potential for evolutionary change.	98
7734506816	phylogeny	evolutionary history of a species or a group of related species -constructed using evidence from systematics	99
7734526796	systematics	discipline that focuses on classifying organisms and their evolutionary relationships -tools include: fossils, morphology, genes, & molecular evidence	100
7734562810	hierarchical classification of organisms	domain kingdom phylum class order family genus species	101
7734646975	homologous structure	similarities due to shared ancestor Ex: bones of a whale's flipper & a tiger's front limb	102
7726692945	Molecular systematics	uses DNA and other molecular data to determine evolutionary relationships	103
7726699670	Cladogram	depicts patterns of shared characteristics and forms basis of a phylogenetic tree	104
7726709383	Clade	Within a phylogenetic tree-- a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants.	105
7726751311	point mutation	change in one nucleotide base in a gene, can have significant impact on phenotype.	106
7726760942	chromosomal mutation	delete, disrupt, duplicate, or rearrange many loci at once.	107
7726771317	How is most genetic variation in a pop made?	Sexual recombination of alleles that already exist in the population.	108
7741317251	shared derived characteristics	evolutionary novelties unique to a particular clade, used to construct cladograms	109
7741321875	shared ancestral characteristics	originated in the ancestor of the taxon	110
7741327474	molecular clocks	methods used to measure the absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of the genome appear to evolve at constant rates	111
7741338276	three-domain system	Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya	112