AP2 Flashcards

7147474099	Inter Atrial septum	What are the two atria separated by?	0
7147474555	Inter ventricular septum	What are the two ventricles separated by?	1
7147475357	Mitral and tricuspid	What are the two AV valves?	2
7147476739	Aortic and pulmonary valves	What are the two semilunar valves?	3
7147478945	The mitral valve	Which AV valve is on the left?	4
7147479275	The tricuspid valve	Which AV valve is on the right?	5
7147483782	Aortic valve	Which semilunar valve goes from the left ventricle through the aorta?	6
7147484310	Pulmonary valve	Which semilunar valve goes from the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery?	7
7147486616	In line with the 2nd rib	Where is the base of the heart?	8
7147487157	5th intercostal space	Where is the apex of the heart? this is also where you can hear your apical pulse (point of maximal intensity)	9
7147490204	Pericardium	What is the outer wall of the heart?	10
7147491207	Myocardium	What is the middle and muscular layer of the heart?	11
7147491675	Endocardium	What is the innermost layer of the heart?	12
7151411367	It is inflammation of the pericardium. Symptoms include chest pain, friction rub (as pericardial fluid can dry out), cough and fever. It can be caused by viral/bacterial infection. Treatments include anti-biotics, cardiac tampnade - draining fluid from the cavity.	Explain pericarditis.	13
7151420444	The contractile cells.	What is contained in the myocardium?	14
7151420646	inflammation of the myocardium. symptoms include chest pain, heart failure and arrhythmias. Causes include viral/bacterial infection, autoimmune reaction. treatment include and inotropes and diuretics which increase urine output and decrease blood volume and workload on the heart	Explain myocarditis.	15
7151422983	The left ventricle as it needs to pump blood around systemic circuit so generates much higher pressure.	Which ventricle has the thicker wall thickness and why is this?	16
7151434157	1. Maintain the shape of the heart, 2. act as attachment point for muscle fibres.	What are 2 functions of the fibrous cardiac skeleton?	17
7151482610	Inflammation of the endocardium, cordae tendinae, IV septum and valves. Symptoms include leaky valves - heart failure, blood clotting on valve leaflets. Caused by infective bacteria and non infective endocarditis. Treatment - antibiotics or surgery	Explain endocarditis.	18
7151490590	Edwards Sapien THV, Artificial Heart Valves	Examples of valve replacements	19
7151493274	Yes they are, despite different pressures.	Are blood volumes leaving the right ventricle and left ventricle equal?	20
7151527280	The right atrium	Where does the coronary sinus drain into?	21
7151544316	Angina pectoris	Thoracic/chest pain due to an inadequate blood supply to the heart muscle	22
7151558032	Myocardial ischaemia	What is inadequate blood supply to the heart muscle called?	23
7151558703	NO	Do cells die if ischaemia is only brief?	24
7151559820	Myocardial infarct (dead muscle)	Coronary artery occlusion occurs and heart is deprived of blood for a long time	25
7151562467	Decreased heart/cardiac function	What does myocardial infarction lead to?	26
7151573040	1. How contraction is initiated - by pacemakers that are specialized to generate APs. 2. Organ vs motor unit contraction 3. Length of absolute refractory period - in cardiac muscle fibre contracts and them immediately relaxes.	3 major differences of cardiomyocytes compared to skeletal muscle cells?	27
7151587674	100	The SA node (pacemaker) generates how many APs/min?	28
7151588285	50	The AV node generates how many APs/min if isolated from functional SA node?	29
7151588811	It is the only connection between atria and ventricles that conducts the AP.	Why does AV bundle run down the IV septum and not in the ventricular wall?	30
7151589386	220 msecs	Time for AP to reach last cells in the ventricle is..?	31
7151668195	Damage to Av node or AV bundle. causes AP to move really slowly	What is a heart block or bundle branch block?	32
7151671759	When cells other than the SA node take over the pacemaker function	What is ectopic focus?	33
7151675912	When other cells in the heart become excitable - can be caused by caffeine or nicotine	What are ventricular extrasystoles?	34
7151682156	generate a strong contraction millions of times a lifetime, ensure that while rate can be changed, it should not be fast enough to leave insufficient filling time	Signals that initiate a contraction need to:	35
7151685220	The role of calcium	What is a main difference between myocardial APs and neural APs?	36
7151689201	Yes	Do both sympathetic and parasympathetic vagus nerve innervate the pacemaker cells?	37
7151692045	Sympathetics	Which innervates the contractile cells of the myocardium?	38
7151814205	Heart rate, heart rhythm, presence of hypertrophy or atrophy of ventricles, abnormal conduction patterns	What things does an ECG help to determine?	39
7151816513	Bradycardia	What is a heart rate less than 60 beats per minute?	40
7151821453	Tachycardia	What is a heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute?	41
7151834057	diastole	period of relaxation	42
7151834219	systole	Period of contraction	43
7151834703	Ventricular filling, atrial contraction, isovolumetric contraction phase, ventricular ejection phase, isovolumetric relaxation, ventricular filling	Order of cardiac cycle?	44
7151837947	25mmHg	Right ventricle systolic pressure in pulmonary circulation?	45
7151838976	Ductus arteriosus	Circulation in utero, connection between the pulmonary trunk and the aorta	46
7151839394	Foramen ovale	In utero, hole between two atria, allows blood to flow from left to right atrium	47
7151841807	Ductus venosus	In utero, bypasses the liver	48
7151842292	Atrial septal defect	Blood goes from right to left right, pressures in pulmonary circulation are abnormally high	49
7156356217	Tunica intima	Inside layer of blood vessel, contains endothelium, subendothelial layer (connective tissue) and internal elastic lamina	50
7156361140	Tunica media	Middle layer of blood vessel, contains external elastic lamina	51
7156362281	Tunica externa	Outside layer of blood vessel, vaso vasorum can be found here	52
7156364888	Arteries	Transport high pressure blood, are thick walled, pressure reservoirs	53
7156365961	Elastic (conducting) arteries	Largest arteries (e.g. aorta & pulmonary trunk), distendable - lots of elastin	54
7156366489	They ensure blood flow continues when they stretch e.g. aorta and p. trunk stretch when ventricles eject blood into arteries	Functional significance of elastic arteries?	55
7156374692	Muscular (distributing arteries)	Smaller arteries, can vasoconstrict or vasodilate (change in diameter in response to signals from nerves), control blood pressure and distribution	56
7156384667	Common carotid artery, brachial artery, radial artery, femoral artery and popliteal artery	What are the arterial pulse sites?	57
7156537948	Plaque/occlusion in artery	What is atherosclerosis?	58
7156541687	Normal arterial wall	Normal arterial wall consists of smooth muscle and connective tissue with an endothelial cell lining	59
7156547725	Early stages of atherosclerosis, called a fatty streak	Excess LDL cholesterol accumulates between endothelium and connective tissue. It is oxidised and phagocytosed. Macrophages produce paracrines that attract smooth muscle cells	60
7156549901	Fibrous plaque, angina	Cholesterol accumulates, fibrous scar tissue forms around it. Migrating smooth muscle cells divide and thicken arterial wall, narrowing lumen. Stage is known as.... and can lead to....?	61
7156550188	Hypertension, dyslipidaemia, high blood sugar, lack of exercise, obesity, cigarette smoke and stress	Risk factors that are preventable for atherosclerosis?	62
7156557667	Can lead to myocardial infarction	Advanced stage of atherosclerosis, calcified scar tissues form. Endothelium can become damaged and collagen can be exposed, platelets can stick to the damaged area and a blood clot can form. This can lead to?	63
7156559129	Increased blood pressure	In atherosclerosis, increased stiffening of arterial walls means....	64
7156560221	Treats atherosclerosis, inflated balloon inserted into artery and widens it	What does a coronary angioplasty do?	65
7156562238	arteriosclerosis	Increased intravascular pressure due to decreased compliance of elastic arteries. also inability to decrease peripheral resistance with vasodilation can have effect	66
7156563176	140/90 mmHg	What is the HT and BP of artery with arteriosclerosis?	67
7156571253	capillaries	microscopic tubes lined by a single layer of squamous endothelium, ~9um, wide, deforming red blood cells that pass, the largest of the vessels	68
7156572045	very close, 20 microns from furthest cells	how close are capillaries to other cells?	69
7156573087	Separate blood from tissue fluid, while allowing ready exchange of materials between them, must be highly permeable to things smaller than proteins	What do capillaries need to do?	70
7156714423	Continuous capillaries	Capillaries: very common, least permeable. typical of muscle, skin, CNS and lungs, allow ions and water but not protein	71
7156716041	Fenestrated capillaries	Capillaries: common, large amount of exchange, GI tract, kidneys, endocrine organs	72
7156717951	Fenestrae	Have a diaphragm, allow ready movement of glucose, amino acids etc. channels THROUGH the cells themselves (as opposed to between cells)	73
7156719625	Open or sinusoidal capillaries	Found where proteins and even cells need to be moved in or out of blood. e.g. spleen, liver bone marrow. very permeable	74
7156733060	Veins	Largest diameter vessels, low resistance to flow, lowest pressure	75
7156753808	also veins	known as capacitance vessel, or blood reservoirs, at rest contain 60-70% of blood volume	76
7165407004	vasovagal reflex	overactivation of vagal nerve resulting in very low heart rate, causes people to faint at the sight of blood.	77
7165407547	chemoreceptors	respond to changes in blood pH, CO2 and O2, located in the aortic arch and carotid sinus, more important in control of respiratory rate than bp.	78
7165412906	lower pressure	do veins generally have high or low pressure?	79
7165413460	60-70%	what percentage of blood volume do veins contain at rest?	80
7165415516	To return blood to the heart	in veins, larger vessels have valves. Why are valves and muscle pumps necessary?	81
7165419171	paper bag, balloon	vein is like a .... artery is like a ..... because of a difference in elasticity?	82
7165420176	The muscle pump, pulse pump and respiratory	The three valve mechanisms in veins... what are they?	83
7165424967	muscle pump	skeletal muscle surrounding deep veins contracts and relaxes, 'milking' blood toward the heart	84
7165428798	respiratory pump	moves blood to the heart as pressure changes in the ventral cavity during breathing. as we inhale, abdominal pressure increases, squeezing local veins and forcing blood to the heart	85
7165430916	not sure if this is pulse pump or respiratory pump	diaphragm drops pushes on ab organs, pushes on inferior vena cava, blood towards heart.	86
7165434038	hepatic portal vein	blood draining from the stomach to the lower gut in the hepatic portal vein is all directed into the?	87
7165435509	two capillary beds follow on from each other	why is the hepatic portal system a bit different?	88
7165453200	so that they will not be directed to the portal vein and therefore the liver, to be removed from circulation. they will go straight to the inferior vena cava	why are some drugs introduced as suppositories?	89
7165454462	Union or joining of nerves, blood vessels or lymphatics	What is anastomosis?	90
7165457766	anastomosis are plentiful in legs and compensate for veins that have been removed	why can veins be stripped and patient still be ok?	91
7165460471	Venous valves fail, pressure builds up from blood exerted from column above.	how do varicose veins form?	92
7165460966	great saphenous, it is superficial and in the leg	which vein is your typical varicose vein?	93
7165461325	genetic, obesity and pregnancy	three causes of varicose veins?	94
7165462415	compress inferior vena cava. high pressures.	how does obesity and pregnancy cause varicose veins?	95
7165463384	thrombus. deep vein thrombosis	clot that forms because of physical inactivity, e.g. sitting on a plane	96
7165475490	an embolus	what is a thrombus known as once it becomes dislodged?	97
7165476912	peripheral resistance	resistance blood experiences in the circulation (in blood vessels)	98
7165478677	CO = HR (heart rate) X SV (stroke volume)	formula for cardiac output?	99
7165482494	it stays the same	how is blood distribution changed from rest to exercise in the brain?	100
7165484948	blood flow increases 3-fold to the heart	how is blood distribution changed from rest to exercise in the heart?	101
7165498533	Increases ten-fold	how is blood distribution changed from rest to exercise in skeletal muscle?	102
7165499640	a lot of heat is generated and the heat needs to be removed	why does skin blood distribution change from rest to exercise?	103
7165500045	kidney, abdomen and other	which organs all decrease by half from rest to exercise?	104
7165500412	amount of blood in ventricle at end of diastole	what is end diastolic volume?	105
7165502629	amount of blood left in ventricle at end of systole	what is end systolic volume?	106
7165503572	SV = EDV - ESV	what is the stroke volume equation?	107
7165506131	diastolic (filling time) and venous pressure	what can determine EDV?	108
7165513805	force of ventricular contraction and arterial blood pressure, pressure against which heart must eject blood into the arteries	what can determine ESV?	109
7165514089	venous return	what is pre load?	110
7165516830	diastolic time and venous pressure, the more the heart is filled the it is stretched, and the stronger the contractions	what can determine pre load?	111
7165530925	Starlings Law	Preload: determines the degree of stretch of the heart muscle	112
7165531226	^ venous return, increased blood entering the heart, increased stretch of myocardial fibres, greater force of myocardial contraction, greater stroke volume, greater cardiac output	Describe Starlings Law	113
7165550990	Contractility	Increase in strength of contraction affected only by external factors, e.g. inotropes	114
7165553933	negative. they reduce amount of calcium coming in	are calcium channel blockers positive or negative inotropes?	115
7165556361	change heart rate	what do chronotropes do?	116
7165557506	less calcium removed in diastole, more calcium in the heart, which means stronger contractions	general effects of digitalis?	117
7165566523	afterload	pressure against which the heart (ventricle) must eject blood into the aorta/pulmonary artery	118
7165588543	It increases, as valves will open later, less stroke volume	increase in afterload: what happens to end systolic volume?	119
7165589726	it will increase also	increase in afterload: what happens to end diastolic volume?	120
7165592087	eventually it will be normal, as starlings law will come into effect (stronger contractions) so will only decrease for one cycle	increase in afterload: what will happen to stroke volume?	121
7165594026	increase it	what do adrenaline and thyroxine do to the heart rate?	122
7165595956	make it abnormal, lead to arrhythmias	what do elevated calcium levels do to heart rate?	123
7165597123	lower it as it lowers the gradient and resting membrane potential, can be very dangerous. SA node stops generating APs	what will elevated k+ levels (outside the cell) do to heart rate?	124
7165599923	arrhythmias	low k+ levels increase risk of....	125
7165600381	yes	does HR decline with age?	126
7165600793	females heart is smaller so has to compensate for less CO	why is HR higher in females?	127
7165602296	heart muscle is weak, SV is small, to compensate heart rate i increased	why is tachycardia such a high resting heart rate?	128
7165608908	When weakened heart muscle cannot make appropriate CO and blood accumulates in the veins	What is congestive heart failure (CHF)?	129
7165611169	coronary artery disease and MI, persistent high blood pressure (increased afterload on heart), dilated cardiomyopathy	causes of congestive heart failure?	130
7165613007	blood cannot push to pulmonary circuit so accumulates in systemic circulation	what occurs in right heart failure?	131
7165615465	fluid will accumulate in the lungs	what occurs in left heart failure?	132
7165616208	increase fluid excretion, reduce pressure and load on heart	how do diuretics treat heart failure?	133
7167079888	Flow rate	Amount of fluid flowing past a certain point per unit time (L/min)	134
7167081440	Flow velocity	Distance a fixed volume of blood/fluid will travel in a given period of time (cm/min or sec)	135
7167087956	Blood pressure	Force per unit area exerted on the vessel wall by the blood - expressed in mmHg	136
7167095233	velocity = flow rate/cross-sectional area	equation for flow velocity?	137
7167098976	when aorta divides into arterioles and arterioles divide into capillaries	where does flow velocity decrease the most?	138
7167104703	so exchange of nutrients can occur	why does flow velocity need to be so slow in capillaries?	139
7167106165	in a directly proportional way	how does increased vessel length increase resistance?	140
7167106741	in a non-linear way	how does increased radius decrease resistance?	141
7167108425	higher blood viscosity	what else can increase resistance?	142
7167110371	doubled, halved	if L2 is twice the length of L1, resisitance in L2 is ..... and flow rate is....	143
7167140720	16 fold, and so does blood flow	how much does resistance reduce with an increase in diameter?	144
7167193804	no	do parasympathetic nerves play a role in the control of blood flow?	145
7167195363	sympathetic nervous systsem	at rest all arterioles are stimulated by....	146
7167200088	B2 receptors on arterioles	which receptors does epinephrine/adrenaline from adrenal medulla bind to?	147
7167211077	F= MAP /R	formula for flow, pressure & resistance?	148
7167216092	= diastolic pressure + (systolic pressure - diastolic pressure)/3	formula for mean arterial pressure?	149
7167218582	Cardiac output x total peripheral resistance	MAP is a function of?	150