AP Biology Review Flashcards

6552586060	Dehydration	connecting monomers together by the removal of water	0
6552586061	Hydrolysis	disassembling polymers by the addition of water	1
6552586062	Disaccharides	glucose + glucose = maltose / glucose + fructose = sucrose / glucose + galactose = lactose	2
6552586063	Polysaccharides	Plants: starch (energy) and cellulose (structure) Animals: glycogen (energy) and chitin (structure)	3
6552586064	Lipids	hydrophobic (very non-polar), consist of long hydrocarbon chains	4
6552586065	Fats	consist of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, store long term energy, saturated = no double bond in hydrocarbon tails (no kink), unsaturated = double bond (kink)	5
6552586066	Phospholipids	consist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic	6
6552586067	Protein structure and organization	composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular)	7
6552586068	Protein functions (8)	1) enzymes 2) antibodies 3) storage proteins 4) transport proteins 5) hormones 6) receptor proteins 7) motor proteins 8) structural proteins	8
6552586069	Nucleic Acids	DNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins	9
6552586070	Nuclear Envelope	double membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER	10
6552586071	Chromatin	uncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division	11
6552586072	Nucleolus	nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these	12
6552586073	Rough ER	covered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes	13
6552586074	Smooth ER	metabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons)	14
6552586075	Golgi	stores, transports, and secretes cell products	15
6552586076	Cytoskeleton	supports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products	16
6552586077	Centrosomes (2 centrioles)	only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division	17
6552586078	Lysosomes	only in animal cells, digestive organelles	18
6552586079	Flagella	only in animal cells, cluster of microtubules for motility	19
6552586080	Extracellular Matrix	only in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell	20
6552586081	Central Vacuole	only in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells)	21
6552586082	Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic	nucleoid / nucleus; only ribosomes / complex membrane-bound organelles; both have same genetic coding, sugars, and amino acids	22
6552586083	Phospholipid Bilayer	tails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied	23
6552586084	Passive trasport	movement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins)	24
6552586085	Active transport	movement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)	25
6552586086	Membrane Potential	voltage across a membrane due to difference in positive and negative ions, electrons move from high to low concentration (ex. sodium-potassium pumps in neurons)	26
6552586087	Electrochemical Gradient	diffusion gradient resulting in combination of membrane potential and concentration gradient	27
6552586088	Hypertonic	solution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed	28
6552586089	Hypotonic	solution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid	29
6552586090	Isotonic	equal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid	30
6552586091	When ΔG is negative...	...the reaction is exergonic (loss of free energy).	31
6552586092	When ΔG is positive...	...the reaction is endergonic (gain of free energy).	32
6552586093	Enzymes	proteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over	33
6552586094	Substrate	the substance that an enzyme acts upon	34
6552586095	Active Site	region of enzyme that binds to the substrate	35
6552586096	Induced fit	change in the shape of an enzyme's active site induced by the substrate, helps to break down the substrate	36
6552586097	The higher the substrate concentration...	...the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated.	37
6552586098	Denaturation	the unraveling of an enzyme due to high temperatures or incompatible pH	38
6552586099	Cofactors	nonprotein molecules that are required for proper enzyme function, cofactors made of organic molecules are called coenzymes	39
6552586100	Enzyme inhibition may be irreversible if...	...the inhibitor attaches by covalent bonds (poisons, toxins)	40
6552586101	Competitive Inhibitors	resemble a substrate and block enzymes' active sites, can be overcome with higher concentration of substrate	41
6552586102	Noncompetitive Inhibitors	bind to a portion of the enzyme and change the shape of the active site so that it cannot match with substrates, used for regulating metabolic reactions	42
6552586103	Feedback Inhibition	the product of a metabolic pathway switches off the enzyme that created it earlier in the process	43
6552586104	Oxidation	loss of electrons (OIL)	44
6552586105	Reduction	gain of electrons (RIG)	45
6552586106	Oxidative Phosphorylation	ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen	46
6552586107	Electron Acceptors	Cellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2) Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH)	47
6552586108	Glycolysis	Input: glucose, 2 ATP Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH	48
6552586109	Conversion Reaction before Kreb's	Input: 2 pyruvate Output: 2 acetyl (w/ CoA), 2 NADH, 2 CO2	49
6552586110	Krebs Cycle	Input: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle)	50
6552586111	Electron Transport Chain	Input: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-) Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O	51
6552586112	Alcohol Fermentation	Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2)	52
6552586113	Lactic Acid Fermentation	Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2)	53
6552586114	Photosynthetic Equation		54
6552586115	Chloroplast structure	Exciting chlorophyll: chlorophyll in thylakoids absorb light, which excites electrons to produce potential energy	55
6552586116	Light Reactions	Input: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+ Output: O2, ATP, NADPH	56
6552586117	Calvin Cycle	Input: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose	57
6552586118	Watson and Crick	built the first accurate 3D DNA model	58
6552586119	Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strand	works toward replication fork / works away from replication fork; both always move in the 5' ➝ 3' direction	59
6552586120	Steps of DNA Replication	1) helicase separates the DNA strands 2) SSB proteins prevent DNA from reanneling 3) primase creates RNA primer 4) DNA polymerase extends DNA strand from the primer 5) DNA polymerase I (RNase H) removes the primers 6) ligase joins the okazaki fragments of the lagging strand	60
6552586121	3 types of RNA	1) mRNA messenger 2) tRNA transfer amino acids (20 kinds) 3) rRNA ribosomes	61
6552586122	Transcription	1) Initiation: promoter site (TATA) is recognized 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the 5' ➝ 3' direction 3) Termination: RNA strand separates, RNA polymerase recognizes termination sequence (AAUAAA)	62
6552586123	RNA processing/splicing	splicesomes remove introns and put together exons, 5' cap and PolyA tail are added	63
6552586124	Codon vs. Anticodon	codon = nucleotide sequence on mRNA anticodon = nucleotide sequence on tRNA	64
6552586125	Translation	1) Initiation: 5' cap attaches to ribosome which accepts an initiator tRNA at the P site (*AUG will always be 1st codon) 2) Elongation: codon/anticodon recognition and formation of peptide bond between A site amino acid and P site amino acid chain 3) translocation of the ribosome down the mRNA strand 4) Termination: ribosome will recognize stop codon and release the protein	65
6552586126	DNA mutations	base-pair substitution; insertion/deletion; frameshift: 1) missense = different protein 2) nonsense = codes for a stop signal prematurely 3) silent = no harmful change	66
6552586127	Prokaryotic cell division	binary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation	67
6552586128	Somatic cell vs. Gamete	any body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg)	68
6552586129	Interphase	(90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis	69
6552586130	Mitosis	1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense	70
6552586131	Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks)	a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase	71
6552586132	Meiosis I	1) Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair up and synapsis occurs, crossing over segments of the chromosomes (chiasma) to create more genetic variation 2) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equator 3) Anaphase: homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. 4) Telophase I...	72
6552586133	Meiosis II	Prophase II - Telophase II act exactly like mitosis except that the resultant number of daughter cells is 4 instead of 2, each with their own unique combination of genetic information	73
6552586134	4 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation	1) Mutation 2) Independent Assortment: homologous chromosomes align randomly on one side of the equator or another 3) Crossing Over 4) Random Fertilization: a zygote can be any combination of a sperm and egg (64 trillion different combinations in humans)	74
6552586135	Testcross	breed a homozygous recessive individual with an individual with a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype to determine whether or not the individual is homozygous or heterozygous	75
6552586136	Dyhybrid heterozygous cross ratio	9:3:3:1	76
6552586137	Incomplete Dominance	heterozygous offspring have an intermediate phenotype of the parents, 1:2:1 ratio (ex. pink flower from red and white flowers)	77
6552586138	Codominance	both alleles manifest themselves separately in an organism's phenotype (ex. roan cattle)	78
6552586139	Multiple alleles	a trait controlled by two or more alleles (ex. blood type, eye color)	79
6552586140	Blood Types	A: A antigen, B antibody B: B antigen, A antibody AB: A and B antigen, no antibodies (universal recipient) O: no antigens, A and B antibodies (universal donor)	80
6552586141	Polygenic Inheritance	the additive effect of 2 or more independently assorted genes on phenotype (ex. human skin pigment)	81
6552586142	Linked genes phenotypic ratio	two large numbers (wild and mutant) and two much smaller numbers (recombinant phenotypes)	82
6552586143	Genetic Map (Linkage/Cytological Map)	ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome, recombinant frequencies can be used to construct it (smaller the percentage = closer together)	83
6552586144	X Inactivation	in females during embryonic development, one of the two X chromosomes in a cell becomes inactive (Barr body) (ex. calico cats)	84
6552586145	Nondisjucntion	homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I or II	85
6552586146	Aneuploidy	one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number; Trisomic = 3 copies instead of 2, Monosomic = 1 copy instead of 2	86
6552586147	Polyploidy	when there is a whole extra set of chromosomes (ex. oversized fruits); Triploidy = 3 sets, Tetraploidy = 4 sets	87
6552586148	4 alterations to gene structure	1) Deletion: removal of chromosomal segment 2) Duplication: repetition of a segment 3) Inversion: reversal of a segment within a chromosome 4) Translocation: movement of a segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous one	88
6552586149	3 stages in cell cummunication	1) Reception: cell detects a signal via connection of a ligand to a receptor protein 2) Transduction: the receptor protein converts the signal to a form that can cause a chemical response 3) Response: transduced signal triggers a specific cellular response	89
6552586150	Types of cell signaling (4)	synaptic, paracrine, hormonal	90
6552586151	Examples of cell signaling	G-protein coupled receptor, ligand-gated ion channels, steroid hormones (dissolved across plasma membrane, intracellular receptor)	91
6552586152	Second Messengers and Phosphorylation cascade	second messengers and kinases spread throughout a cell that help amplify a cellular signal by a series of phosphorylation reactions (addition of phosphate)	92
6552586153	Virus structure	nonliving, can't rproduce on their own; Capsid: protein coat that encloses the viral genome; Envelope: membrane that surrounds some viral capsids; Phage: protein encapsulated virus that attacks bacteria	93
6552586154	Lytic Cycle	1) virus attaches to host cell 2) phage DNA enters cell and the cell's DNA degrades (*restriction enzymes in bacteria could destroy them) 3) synthesis of viral genomes and proteins 4) assembly of phages within cell 5) release of viruses, destroys cell	94
6552586155	Lysogenic Cycle	the virus inserts its DNA into a host cell, and its DNA integrates with the DNA of the host, allows it to be replicated without being attacked for long periods of time before entering the lytic cycle	95
6552586156	Retrovirus	RNA virus that transcribes its RNA into DNA to insert into host cells (ex. HIV)	96
6552586157	Provirus	a viral genome that is permanently inserted into a host genome	97
6552586158	Viral Transduction	contributes to bacterial genetic variation	98
6552586159	Repressible Operon	trp operon - usually on, can be repressed. Repressor protein produced in inactive shape	99
6552586160	Inducible Operon	lac operon - usually off, can be turned on. Repressor protein produced in active shape.	100
6552586161	cAMP and CAP regulated Operon	when CAP is inactive, transcription continues at a much less efficient rate even in the presence of lactose	101
6552586162	Histone Acetylation	the loosening of chromatin structure (euchromatin), promotes transcription	102
6552586163	Histone Methylation	the condensing of chromatin structure (heterochromatin), prevents transcription	103
6552586164	Transcription Factors and Enhancers	RNA polymerase requires the assistance of transcription factor proteins and enhancers or activators to successfully transcribe RNA	104
6552586165	Epigenetic Inheritance	inheritance of traits not directly related to nucleotide sequence (ex. fat, sickly, yellow rats were fed a methylated diet, resulted in offspring that were normal-sized, healthy, and brown)	105
6552586166	5 Evidences for Evolution	1) Biogeography 2) Fossil Record 3) Comparative Anatomy 4) Comparative Embryology 5) Molecular Biology	106
6552586167	4 conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (not evolving)	1) very large population 2) isolation from other populations 3) no mutations 4) no natural selection	107
6552586168	Microevolution vs. Macroevolution	change in the gene pool of a population over several generations / large scale changes in a population that leads to the evolution of a new species	108
6552586169	4 causes of Microevolution	1) genetic drift 2) gene flow 4) natural selection	109
6552586170	Genetic Drift	random change in gene frequency of a small breeding population: 1) Founder Effect = small population of organisms colonizes a new area, 2) Bottleneck Effect = sudden decrease in population size due to disaster	110
6552586171	Gene Flow	loss/addition of alleles from a population due to imigration/emigration	111
6552586172	Nonrandom Mating	selection of mates for specific phenotypes: 1) Assortative Mating = when individuals select partners with simple phenotypic characters, 2) Inbreeding = more recessive traits likely to come together	112
6552586173	3 Modes of Natural Selection	1) Stabilizing: favors intermediate, 2) Directional: favors one extreme phenotype, 3) Diversifying: favors both extremes	113
6552586174	Heterozygote Advantage	heterozygotes for a trait are more likely to survive (ex. carriers of sickle cell anemia are immune to malaria)	114
6552586175	Biological Species Concept	population whose members can create viable, fertile offspring (Problems: doesn't apply to extinct animals or asexually reproducing organisms)	115
6552586176	Prezygotic Reproductive Barriers	1) Habitat Isolation 2) Behavioral Isolation (differing behaviors for attracting mates) 3) Temporal Isolation (mate at different times) 4) Mechanical Isolation 5) Gametic Isolation (unable to fertilize egg)	116
6552586177	Postzygotic Reproductive Barriers	1) Reduced Hybrid Viability (disruption in embryonic stage) 2) Reduced Hybrid Fertility 3) Hybrid Breakdown (F1 is fertile, F2 is sterile or weak)	117
6552586178	Allopatric Speciation	when populations become geographically isolated from the rest of the species and has the potential to develop a new species (ex. Adaptive Radiation: many diversely adapted species from common ancestor, Darwin's finches)	118
6552586179	Sympatric Speciation	members of a population develop gametic differences that prevent them from reproducing with the parental type (polyploidy, not as common)	119
6552586180	Punctuated Equilibrium vs. Gradualism	evolution occurs in short spurts of rapid change / each new species will evolve gradually over long spans of time	120
6552586181	Convergent Evolution	different organisms that occupy similar environments come to resemble one another (ex. dolphins and sharks)	121
6552586182	Endosymbiosis	Origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Evidence: They have their own DNA and ribosomes, double membrane structure, grow and reproduce on their own within the cell	122
6552586183	Phylogeny	evolutionary history of a species or group of related species	123
6552586184	Taxonomic groups from broad to narrow (8)	Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species	124
6552586185	3 mechanisms in which bacteria transfer genetic materials	1) Transformation: prokaryote takes up DNA from its environment 2) Transduction: viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes 3) Conjugation: genes are directly transferred from one prokaryote to another over a temporary "mating bridge"	125
6552586186	Types of Symbiotic Relationships	Mutualism (+, +), Commensalism (+, 0), Parasitism, (+, -)	126
6552586187	Factors that influence Transpiration Rate	Temperature: higher temperature, faster rate; Humidity: higher humidity, slower rate; Sunlight: more sun, faster rate; Wind: more wind, faster rate	127
6552586188	Lines of Immune Defense	1st Line) skin oil and sweat, mucous; 2nd Line) nonspecific phagocytes and cytotoxic immune cells; 3rd Line) specific immune system	128
6552586189	Primary and Secondary Immune Response		129
6552586190	Active vs. Passive Immunity	depends on the response of a person's own immune system (artificial = vaccines) / immunity passed from one organism to another	130
6552586191	B cells vs. T cells (maturation)	mature in bone marrow / mature in thymus	131
6552586192	Humoral vs. Cell-Mediated Immune Responses		132
6552586193	Non-steroid hormone vs. Steroid hormone	travels in bloodstream, binds to receptor on cell surface / travels in bloodstream, binds to receptor inside the cell	133
6552586194	Endotherms vs. Ectotherms	warmed by heat generated by metabolism (mammals, birds) / generate little metabolic heat, warmed by environment	134
6552586195	Niche	a position/role taken by a kind of organism within its community	135
6552586196	Resource Partitioning	division of environmental resources by coexisting species	136
6552586197	Per capita Growth Rate	birth - death / total population	137
6552586198	Exponential vs. Logistic Growth	in logistic growth, carrying capacity will limit the population's size	138
6552586199	Density-dependent Regulation	Density-independent: natural disasters, human impact, etc.	139
6552586200	Keystone Species	species that exerts strong control on community structure not by numerical might but by their pivotal ecological roles or niches	140
6552586201	Energy Pyramid	each energy level receives only 10% of the pervious level's energy	141
6552586202	Gross Primary Production vs. Net Primary Production	total amount of energy from light converted to chemical energy to organic molecules / GPP - energy used by primary producers for "autotrophic respiration"	142
6552586203	Carbon Cycle	Connect photosynthesis (fixation) to cellular respiration (CO2 release)	143
6552586204	Plasmids	a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome	144
6552586205	Recombinant DNA	a DNA vector made in vitro with segments from different sources	145
6552586206	Restriction Enzyme	an enzyme that recognizes and cuts DNA molecules at specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites), can then be used to create recombinant DNA	146
6552586207	Gel Electrophoresis	analyzing fragments of DNA (RFLPs) by their length and charge to determine genetic fingerprints and other genetic information	147