AP Psychology Language & Cognition jaquiwilson Flashcards

AP Psychology terminology for language and cognition

4807501170	Cognition	process whereby we acquire and use knowledge; key elements: reviewing the past, contemplating the future, thinking about possibility; thinking	0
4807501171	language	a flexible system of communication using sounds, rules, gestures, or symbols to convey information; is semantic (meaningful)-gives detailed information; displacement-allows communication over time; productive-create new words to communicate	1
4807501172	phonemes	basic sound units; indicates change in meaning; universal; 45 phonemes in English, up to 85 in other languages; string together to create morphemes; examples:/s/, /z/, /ch/, /th/, /k/, etc.	2
4807501173	morphemes	smallest meaningful units of speech; simple words, suffixes, prefixes; examples: red, hot, calm, -ed, pre-	3
4807501174	surface structure	the particular words and phrases used to make up a sentence	4
4807501175	deep structure	the underlying meaning of a sentence	5
4807501176	grammar	language rules; determines how sounds and words can be combined; used to communicate meaning within a language; has two components: syntax and semantics; meaning is often determined by word order; Noam Chomsky; allows people to make transformation from surface to deep structure in sentences	6
4807501177	semantics	criteria for assigning meaning to the morphemes in a language; influenced by Noam Chomsky; content of language; evidence by surface and deep structure	7
4807501178	syntax	Noam Chomsky; system of rules that governs how words are combined/arranged to form meaningful phrases and sentences; determined by word order	8
4807501179	image	nonverbal; visual, auditory, olfactory; mental representations; Einstein felt that scale in visualizing abstract concepts lead to insights; can be manipulated mentally (Shepard and Metzler) geometric patterns	9
4807501180	concept	mental categories; classifying objects, people, or experiences; can be modified to better manage experience; example-dogs, books, cars<-- objects in world; fast, strong, interesting<-- things, people, events	10
4807501181	information retrieval	the idea that language affects our ability to store and retrieve information as well as our ability to think about things; evidence by linguistic determinism; pulled info from long-term memory	11
4807501182	prototype	Rosch; mental model; model that contains the most typical features of concept; example: cat-pale, whiskers, meow, clause, for, ears	12
4807501183	Idealized Cognitive Model (ICM)	Rosch; expands on prototypes; concept + schema; example: mother	13
4807501184	problem representation	first step in problem-solving; interpreting or defining a problem	14
4807501185	trial and error	problem-solving strategy; best if there are limited choices; takes time to try all approaches; try one approach, fail; and another until you succeed; guarantees a solution	15
4807501186	algorithm	problem-solving strategy; step by step method that guarantees a solution; must be appropriate for the problem to be use; math is a good example	16
4807501187	heuristic	problem-solving strategy; rule of Tom; does not guarantee a solution; simplifies a problem so a solution may be found; four types: hillclimbing, subgoals, means-end analysis, and working backward	17
4807501188	hillclimbing	a heuristic; each set move to progressively closer to a final goal; simple; example: balancing a budget, reduce expenses to a smaller deficit	18
4807501189	subgoals	a heuristic; break problem into smaller, more manageable pieces; example: Hobbits and Orcs problem	19
4807501190	means-end analysis	a heuristic; probably most use; combines hillclimbing and subgoals; analyze a difference between the current situation and the desired outcome, then do something to reduce the difference; does not preprint detours from final goal; example: pitcher's strategy with best batter-ultimate goal-to win game and keep batters off the base, a walk the best batter to eliminate more runs	20
4807501191	working backward	a heuristic; used when means end analysis strays from goal; begin with goal and work backwards towards the "givens"; used when goal has more information than the givens and when the operations involved work two ways; example: $100 to spend, buy one item and subtract $100 to determine how much is left	21
4807501192	set	mental set; tendency to perceive and approach problems in certain ways; determines what information we retrieved from memory to help us find a solution (includes heuristics and algorithms); flexibility comes from multiple sites to choose from (switch or abandon sets); pandered by function fixedness	22
4807501193	functional fixedness	a hindrance to problem-solving; "assigning" an object in one function (which is how we form concepts); seeing a limited number of uses for an object; example: what can use a pencil for? A brick?	23
4807501194	Tactic of elimination	problem-solving strategy; less all possible solutions then discard all solutions that seem to lead in the wrong direction	24
4807501195	visualizing	basic building blocks of thought; diagramming a course of action	25
4807501196	divergent thinking	thinking outside the box; generating as many unique answers as possible	26
4807501197	convergent thinking	only one answer; answers are narrow in focus; example: math problems	27
4807501198	compensatory model	a rational decision making model; choices are rated on various criteria (attractive criteria offset or compensate for unattractive features); example: buying a car-1. Higher price, better gas mileage 2. Lower price, lower mpg which do you buy ?	28
4807501199	noncompensatory model	decision making model; where criteria is not so rational; example: car buying-hinges on car color	29
4807501200	representativeness	heuristic; decision making model; new situation judged on its resemblance to a stereotypical model; example: you buy an expensive clothes and they fall apart, he judged anything inexpensive to be cheap therefore it is representative of the quality	30
4807501201	availability	decision-making heuristic; judgment or decision is based on information that is most easily retrieved; type of: Subway Effect-law of nature that you are situation seldom occurs and we adjust accordingly (the other line his faster, until you give in it)	31
4807501202	confirmation bias	decision-making heuristic; tendency to look for evidence in support of a believe and to ignore evidence to disprove the believe; seeing patterns of cause and effect when there is any pattern; example: AIDS, chocolate and acne	32
4807501203	linguistic-relativity hypothesis	Benjamin Whorf; thinking patterns based on specific languages; evidence by linguistic determinism	33
4807501204	figurative language	expressive language; smiles and metaphors	34
4807501205	telegraphic speech	early speech; stage of one and two-year-olds that omits nonessential words; often used by primates; example: more milk!	35
4807501206	Framing	perspective or phrasing of information used to make a decision; studies on survival and mortality framing	36
4807501207	hindsight bias	tendency to view outcomes as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome, and believe that we could have predicted what happened; "I knew it all along"	37
4807501208	linguistic determinism	idea of the patterns of thinking are determined by the specific language one speaks; Benjamin more; example: Hopi language as to nouns for "flies"-one for birds and one for everything else; Dani limited color terminology-light/dark	38
4807501209	counterfactual thinking	thinking about alternative realities and things that never happened; what ifs	39