AP Biology Chapters 4-7 Flashcards

7269730283	organic chemistry	study of carbon compounds	0
7269730284	hydrocarbons	- organic molecules only consisting of carbon and hydrogen - hydrocarbon chains are hydrophobic due to their non-polar CH bonds - release energy when broken down	1
7269844674	isomers	compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements and properties	2
7269847005	cistrans isomers	same sequence of covalently bonded atoms but overall differ in structure due to inflexibility of double bonds - cis isomer has same atoms attached to same carbons on one side of double bond - trans has atoms on opposite sides of double bond	3
7269857536	enantiomers	left and right handed versions of a molecule and can differ greatly in biological activity - ex: pharmacy - 2 enantiomers of a drug may not be equally effective (ex: crank vs. nasal inhaler) (mirrored versions of a molecule)	4
7269864316	functional groups	may affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions - hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl	5
7269873639	what do the functional groups hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate all have in common?	they are all hydrophilic, functional, and increase solubility of organic compounds in water	6
7269876936	what is different between hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate functional groups and methyl?	methyl isn't reactive	7
7269877007	hydroxyl group	-OH name: alochols (ex: ethanol) is polar because electrons spend more time near electronegative oxygen atom form hydrogen bonds with water helping dissolve organic compounds like sugars	8
7269884782	carbonyl	name: ketones (in cytoskeleton), aldehydes (at end of C skeleton) ex: ketones - acetone ex: aldehydes - propanol can be structural isomers with different properties found in sugars. give rise to ketoses adn aldoses	9
7269892679	carboxyl	name: carbolxyc acids ex: acetic acid acts as an acid - donates H+ becauses the covalent bond between O and H is so polar	10
7269900300	amino	name: amines ex: glycine compounds with both amino and carboxyl group are amino acids acts as a base. picks up H+ from surrounding solution	11
7269903633	sulfahydryl	name: thiols ex: cysteine- sulfur containing amino acid two groups react forming covalent bond. stabilizes protein structure (tertiary) cross linking in hair proteins maintains curls/straight hair	12
7269909165	phosphate	name: organic phosphates ex: glycerol phosphate-phospholipids contributes negative charge when at end of molecules molecules with these groups have the potential to interact with water, releasing energy	13
7269914528	methyl	name: methylated cmpds ex: methyl cytosine-component modified by methyl group affects expression of genes arrangement gives male and female sex hormones an affected shape and function	14
7269921656	ATP	consists of organic molecule adenosine to which 3 phosphates are attached when reacts with water, third phosphate splits off releasing energy	15
7269925259	macromolecules	carbs, proteins, nucleic acids, are huge	16
7269925287	polymer	long macromolecule with many similiar building blocks with covalent bonds	17
7269927753	monomers	repeating unit in polymers	18
7269927754	enzymes	specializes macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions	19
7269930150	dehydration synthesis	monomers connected in reaction in which 2 molecules are covalently bonded with loss of water molecule when bond forms, each monomer contributes either a -OH or -H to water molecules catalyzed by enzymes endergonic - needs energy	20
7269934581	hydrolysis	- dissasembly of polymers - bond broken by additional addition of water - H+ attaching to one monomer and OH to another - exergonic - release of energy	21
7269936457	carbohydrates	sugars and polymers of sugars	22
7269937568	monosaccharieds	general formula CH2O - number of these units form a sugar vary	23
7269941105	what kind of functional groups are in a sugar	a carbonyl and multiple hydroxyl groups	24
7270250771	disaccharide	consists of 2 monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage	25
7270252913	glycosidic linkage	covalent bond between 2 monosaccharides joined by dehydration reaction	26
7270262106	polysaccharides	polymers with thousands of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages	27
7270263991	starch	-what plants store -polymer of glucose monomers, with plastids that have chloroplasts -synthesizing starch enables the plant to stockpile surplus glucose -is stored energy -can be withdrawn through hydrolysis, breaking down into glucose monomers -simplest form is amylose, then amylopectin (complex) -has alpha linkages ( repeating monomers in the same direction )	28
7270275750	glycogen	-what animals store -like amylopectin but more extensively branched - in muscle and liver cells -hydrolysis of glycogen releases glucose when the demand for sugar increases	29
7270284425	cellulose	-tough outside wall that encloses plant cells - is unbranched - has beta glycosidic linkages -enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing alpha linkages can't do the same to cellulose because beta ones are a different shape. - some hydroxyls free to hydrogen bond with other hydroxyls to cellulose moleculse paralle to it -parallel cellulose held together by hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl groups attached to carbon - repeating units that are in opposite directions	30
7270303659	beta linkages	monomers in alternating orientation (one upside down, the other right side up, etc) linkages in cellulose	31
7270307135	alpha linkages	all monomers are in the same orientation linkages in starch	32
7279144204	chitin	structural polysaccharide formed from glucose monomers - found in exoskeletons and fungi have nitrogen containing group	33
7279159298	Lipids	fats, pospholipids, steroids hydrophobic do NOT form polymers	34
7279161018	fats	fatty acids attached to the 3-carbon, alcohol, glycerol - are an excellent storage of molecules - twice the reserve of carbs	35
7279163193	fatty acid	long, hydrocarbon chain with carboxyl group at one end - non polar hydrocarbons make them hydrophobic	36
7279169153	triaglycerol	3 fatty acids, each linked by an ester linkage- a bond between a hydroxyl and carboxyl	37
7279172118	ester linkage	bond between hydroxyl and carboxyl	38
7279176600	unsaturated fatty acids	fatty acids with double bonds in their carbon chain - is liquid at room temperature -cis double bond makes a kink - prevents unsaturated fatty acids from packing and solidifying together - plants and fish fat - oils - liquid at room temperature	39
7279183005	saturated fatty acids	no double bonds animal fats solid at room temperature	40
7279184699	trans fats	made in the process of hydrogenated vegetable oils unsaturated fats with trans double bond	41
7279196152	phospholipids	glycerol linked to 2 fatty acids and a negatively charged phosphate group - phosphate head is hydrophilic - fatty acid tail is hydrophobic (ideal for membranes)	42
7279201204	steroids	class of lipids distinguished by 4 connecting carbon rings with various attached groups - components of cell membranes (cholesterol) - signaling molecules that travel through the body (Horemones)	43
7279205389	cholesterol	component in animal cell membranes - precursor for other steroids, including many hormones - help maintain fluidity in the cell membrane	44
7279210426	catalysts	enzymes (proteins) that speed up reactions	45
7279210427	polypeptide	polymer of amino acid	46
7279211659	protein	functional molecule of one or more polypeptides, each folded in 3D shape	47
7279216743	amino acids	- composed of alpha carbon bonded to a hydrogen atom, carboxyl group, amino group, variable side chain called R group - R group refers to unique physical and chemical properties - side chains may either be polar or charged and hydrophilic, or nonpolar and hydrophobic - amino and carboxyl usually ionized	48
7279222599	examples of proteins	enzymes structural storage transport hormones receptor proteins motor proteins defensive proteins	49
7279227404	peptide bond	bond linking carboxyl group of one amino acid with an amino acid of another - through dehydration reaction	50
7279230463	N-terminus	amino end of polypeptide	51
7279231621	C-terminus	carboxyl end of polypeptide	52
7279233944	protein structure and function	amino acid sequence determines 3D shape - globular - sphere - fibrous - long fibers	53
7279238707	what does the functionality of a protein depend on?	ability of the protein to recognize and bind to other molecules depends on molecular order also depends on physical and chemical enviornment	54
7279243049	denaturation	protein loses native shape weak chemical bonds and interactions destroyed ex: when it moves from an aqueous to a nonpolar solvent .......	55
7279247151	chaperonins	protein molecules assist in folding of proteins keep new polypeptide segregated from bad influences in cytoplasmic environemnt from e. coli	56
7279250711	xray crystallography	determines 3D structure of a protein	57
7279252442	gene	amino acid sequence of a polypeptide programmed by a discrete unit of inheritance	58
7279256431	nucleic acid	polymers made of monomers called nucleotides	59
7279257828	deoxyribonucleic acid	enable organisms to reproduce their complex components through each generation	60
7279262593	polynucleotides	nucleic acids make up polymers	61
7279264801	nucleotide	made up of nitrogenous base, 5 carbon sugar (pentose), one or more phosphate groups	62
7279266392	pyrimidine	one six membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms cytosine and thymine (remember: both contain a y in the name)	63
7279269306	purines	larger, six membered ring fused to a five membered ring adenine and guanine	64
7279275832	what are the different types of nitrogenous bases and who do they pair with	cytosine and guanine pair thymine and adenine pair	65
7279276984	deoxyribose and ribose	- deoxyribose lacks an oxygen atom on the second carbon in the ring - second carbon is 2' - fifth carbon (sticks up from ring) is 5'	66
7279531842	how to make a nucleotide	attach a phosphate group to the 5' carbon of the sugar which equals a nucleoside monophosphate = nucleotide	67
7279534050	phosphodiester linkage	linkage between the phosphate group and sugars	68
7279537992	double helix	2 strands	69
7279537993	antiparallel	2 phosphate-sugar backbones rune in opposite 5' to 3' direction	70
7279541101	complimentary	each side of DNA is predictable	71
7279542540	primary structure	linked series of amino acids with a unique sequence - determined by inherited genetic info - LINEAR chain - dictates other structures, due to the back bone and variable side chains of the amino acids	72
7279545417	secondary structure	regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of polypeptide backbone - coils and folds of peptide chain due to the hydrogen bonds O atoms have partial (-) charge and H+ on Nitrogens have partial (+) charge, causing hydrogen bonds to form	73
7279553434	what are the two types of secondary structures	alpha helix beta pleated sheet	74
7279554488	alpha helix	form of secondary structure - delicate coil held by hydrogen bonding on every 4th amino acid	75
7279557929	beta pleated sheet	2+ strands of polypeptide chains side by side connected by hydrogen bonds between the 2 parallel peptide backbones	76
7279565661	tertiary structure	3D shape stabilized by interactions of the side chains (R groups)	77
7279569448	hydrophobic interaction	interaction between amino acids with hydrophobic (nonpolar) side chains usually end up in clusters at core of protein. hydrophobic interaction caused by explosion of nonpolar substances by H20 molecules - once nonpolar amino acids are close to gether, van der waals hold them together - hydrogen bonds between polar side chains and ionic bonds help hold them together and stabilize the tertiary structure	78
7279576950	disulfide bridges	covalent bonds from where 2 cytosine monomers, that have sulfhydryl groups on the side chain, are brought close together by folding of side chain	79
7279582075	quaternary structure	overall protein structure that results from aggregation of polypeptide subunits - association of multiple polypeptides forming a functional protein	80
7279585029	light microscope	visible light is passed through the specimen and then through glass lenses. bend light so specimin is magnitized (LIVE specimins)	81
7279587940	magnification	ratio of objects size to true size of real image	82
7279588696	resolution	measure of clairty of image	83
7279588697	contrast	differences in parts of sample	84
7279589502	electron microscope	focuses bam of electrons through specimines. study organelles better KILLS live specimines	85
7279591123	scanning electron microscope	used for detail of topography - scans surface of sample	86
7279592913	transmission microscope	study the internal structure of cells	87
7279594145	cell fractionation	takes cells apart and separates major organelles and other subcellular structures from one another - centrifuge spins test tube. causes cell components to fall to bottom - allows researchers to prepare specific cell components in bulk and identify functions	88
7279603645	cytosol	jelly fluid organelles are in	89
7279604591	eukaryotic cells	DNA in nucleus that has a double membrane	90
7279605112	prokaryotic	no nucleus - DNA in nucleoid	91
7279606159	nucleoid	not membrane bound place where DNA is	92
7279606786	cytoplasm	between nucleus and plasma membrane	93
7279607269	plasma membrane	selective barrier allowing passage of oxygen, nutrients, waste - smaller objects have greater ratio of surface area to volume - necessary to exchange things across the barrier	94
7279609775	nucleus	contains most of genes	95
7279610397	nuclear envelope	encloses nucleus. double membrane	96
7279610398	nuclear lamina	netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of nucleus by supporting nuclear envelope - nuclear lamina and filaments help organize genetic material	97
7279619711	chromosomes	structures carrying genetic info	98
7279621574	chromatin	complex of DNA and proteins in chromosome	99
7279622884	nucleolus	-nondividing structure in nucleus -synthesis of rRNA -combines rRNA with protein to assemble ribosomal subunits, then passes through nuclear pores	100
7279626562	ribosomes	made of protein and ribosomal RNA - free - in cytosol - bound - attached to ER- make proteins in membranes, packed in organelles, or exported out of cell	101
7279629243	endomembrane system	nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles, plasma membrane membranes related through contact or vesicles	102
7279630710	vesicles	membrane bound sacs that transfer membrane segments	103
7279635942	ER	- membranous system continuous with nuclear envelope and enclosed in a network of interconnected tubules or compartments called cisternae	104
7279636898	Rough ER	has ribosomes attached proteins meant for secretion made by ribosomes then threaded through lumen of RER. most proteins are glycoproteins	105
7279640812	glycoproteins	proteins covalently bonded to small carbohydrates	106
7279637501	Smoother ER	doesn't have ribosomes attached enzymes involved in phospholipid and steroid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, detox of drugs and poisons, storage release of Ca ions during muscle contraction - alcohol makes liver increase production of smooth ER, leading to increased tolerance	107
7279646582	transport vesicles	what proteins are transported in from RER	108
7279653200	Golgi	stack of flattened sacs - golgi products are processed and tagged as cisternae - products of ER are modified and stored and transported to other places	109
7279658786	what are the two faces of the golgi body	CIS and TRANS	110
7279659459	what is the CIS face of the Golgi	CIS - near ER - side of ER - entrance of stuff	111
7279660104	what is the TRANS face of the golgi	TRANS - gives rise to vesicles pinching off and traveling to other sites carrying golgi products - of plant manufactures polysaccharides	112
7279662518	lysosomes	membrane enclosed sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromoleucules - can provide acidic pH for these enzymes - recycles cells own macromolecules by fusing with damaged organelles	113
7279665425	autophagy	when lysosomes fuse with damaged organelles to recycle them	114
7279667637	vacuoles	large vesicles	115
7279669286	phagocytosis	when protists engulf particles how lysosomes can digest food vacuoles	116
7279667638	food vacuoles	as a result of phagocytosis stores food	117
7279671543	contractile vacuoles	pump excess water out of fress water protists	118
7279672259	what can vacuoles in plant cells do	can store organic and inorganic ions, contain dangerous metabolic byproducts, protect plant from predators	119
7279673734	central vacuole	found in mature plant cells contain solution called cell sap	120
7279674365	mitochondria	where cellular respiration happens to make ATP	121
7279678772	cisternae	folds of membrane of mitochondria create a large surface area enclose mitochondria matrix	122
7279675545	endosymbiont theory	mitochondria was prokaryote - mitochondria has 2 membranes, phospholipid bilayer with special proteins, own DNA, ribosomes	123
7279677673	chloroplasts	where photosynthesis happens makes sugars from CO2, H2) and solar energy have 2 membranes	124
7279681158	thylakoids	intermembrane system of connected sacs in chloroplasts	125
7279681807	grana	stacks of thylakoids	126
7279681808	stroma	fluid fillid around the thylakoids contain chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, enzymes	127
7279683194	plastids	plant organelle (chloroplasts) include amyloplasts which stores starch, chromoplasts which contain pigments	128
7279684383	amyloplasts	type of plastid that stores starch	129
7279684795	peroxisomes	specialized metabolic compartment bound by a membrane contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from substrates and transfer them to oxygen to make hydrogen peroxide (H202)	130
7279687787	function of peroxisomes	- break down fatty acids for energy, detox alochol and poisons - has enzymes that converts hydrogen peroxide to water - glyoxysomes	131
7279690591	glyoxysomes	Specialized peroxisomes found in the fat storing tissues of plant seeds - convert fatty acids to sugars	132
7279701034	cytoskeleton	network of protein fibers give mechanical support and function in cell mobility interacts with motor proteins to produce cellular movements	133
7279722788	microtubules	- hollow rods constructed of colums of globular proteins called tublins. thickest . ex: separate chromosomes during cell division - are tracks taht roganelles move along with aid of motor proteins - grow out of centrosome	134
7279765721	centrosome	region near nucleus called microtuble organizing center	135
7279766159	centrioles	part of centrosome pair of centrolies, each made of 9 sets of triplet microtubules in a ring, is associated with centrosome and replicated before cell divison	136
7279770794	cilia and flagella	locomoter extensions both composed of 2 single microtubules surrounded by a ring of 9 doublets of microtubules enclosed in extension of plasma membrane	137
7279772029	basal body	with "9+0+ pattern of microtubule triplits, anchors a cilium or flagellum in cell.	138
7279773225	dyneins	large motor proteins composed of several polypeptides -responsable for bending movement of organism - atp provides energy to allow dynein proteins to change shape to preform complex movements	139
7279776644	microfilament	smallest solid rods build from actin is a twisted chain of actin subunits form a structural network when proteins bind to side of actin filament structural purpose is to bear tension (pull force) and support the shape of the cell	140
7279776645	actin	globular protein. units of microfilament	141
7279779681	cortex	outer cytoplasmic layer of cell microfilament structure gives the cortex its gel consistency - microfilaments increase surface area of intestinal cells - microfilaments on length of muscle cell with myosin	142
7279782789	myosin	thicker filaments made of a protein acts as a motor protein- walks along actin filaments contraction of a muscle cell is bc of actin and myosin filaments sliding past another, shortening of cell	143
7279785095	cytoplasmic streaming	involves both actin myosin interactions and sol-gel conversions - circular flow of cytoplasm in cells	144
7279786154	intermediate filaments	smaller than microtubules, bigger than microfillaments maintain cell shape nucleus security held by web of intermediate fillaments nuclear lamina made of intermediate filaments -permanent network of cell	145
7279788370	cell wall	composed of microfibrils of cellulose embedded in a matrix of polysaccharides and protein	146
7279789505	microfibrils	made of polysaccharide cellulose synthesized by cellulose synthase	147
7279789504	primary cell wall	young plant thin and flexible microtubules in cell cortex guide path of cellulose synthase, determining pattern of cellulose fibril deposition and thus direction of cell expansion	148
7279792169	middle lamella	between primary walls of adjacent cells - thin layer of polysaccharides (PECTIN)	149
7279793134	secondary wall	between plasma membran and primary cell wall	150
7279793889	extracellular matrix	made of glycoproteins and other carbohydrae containing molecules	151
7279794344	glycoproteins	are proteins covalently bonded with carbs, usually in sort chain fo sugars	152
7279795452	collagen	forms strong fibers embedded in a network of proteoglycan complexes (outside of cell)	153
7279796890	proteoglycans	consist of small core protein with many carbohydrate chains all attached to long polysaccharides	154
7279797498	fibronectins	how cells attach to ECM	155
7279797513	integrins	span plasma membrane. what fibronectins bind to bind to microfilaments bind to micro filaments via other proteins of cytoskeleton	156
7279807511	plasmodesmata	channels in plant cell walls which plasma membranes connect linking plant cells into a living continuoum	157
7279808926	tight junction	proteins hold adjacent membranes tightly together creating impermeable seal across layer of epithelial cells - prevent leakage	158
7279811104	desmosomes	reinforced by intermediate filaments. rivet cells into strong sheets (in muscle)	159
7279813304	gap junction	cytoplasmic connections allow for exchange of small molecules and ions between cells to protein lined pores	160
7279815897	fluid mosaic model	biological membranes consist of various proteins that are attached to or embedded in bylayer of phospholipids	161
7279817699	amphipathic	both hydrophilic and phdrophobic	162
7279819242	parts of plasma membrane	- membranes held together by weak hydrophobic interactions that allow the lipid and some of the proteins to drift laterally - soe membrane proteins held by cytoskeleton or ECM - others directed in movements - phospholipids with unsaturated carbon tails maintain membrane fluidity at a lower temp	163
7279822468	cholesterol	restricts movement of phospholipids reducing fluidity at warmer temps and enhancing fluidity at lower temps	164
7279823709	integral proteins	extended though membrane with 2 hydrophilic ends and a hydrophobic midsection made of one or more alpha helical structures of nonpolar amino acids	165
7279825228	peripheral proteins	attached to surface of membrane - attachments of membrane proteins to cytoskeleton and fibers of ecm provide support for membrane	166
7279826800	glycolipids	cacarbs covalently bonded to lipids	167
7279828129	what do glycolipids and glycoproteins have to do with the plasma membrane	the diversity and location of these molecules enable membrane carbs to funciton as markers that distinguish one cell to another	168
7279828965	channel proteins	have hydrophilic channel to allow passage of polar molecules	169
7279829518	transport proteins	help move ions and polar molecules across membrane	170
7279829820	aquaporins	allows passage of water through membranes	171
7279829821	diffusion	movement of substance down conentration gradient due to random thermal motion	172
7279830743	passive transport	no energy expenditure	173
7279830744	osmosis	diffusion of free water across permeable membrane. diffuses down concentration gradient	174
7279831536	tonicity	clustering of water around solute adn free water particles tendency of a surrounding solution to gain or lose water	175
7279832515	isotonic	neigher gain or lose water	176
7279833194	hypertonic	more non-penetrating solutes - water will flow out of cell when it is in a hypertonic environment, causing it to shrivel	177
7279835490	hypotonic	less solutes outside of cell than inside, cause water to go into cell and burst	178
7279836533	turgid	firm, healthy state for plant cells turgor pressure water moving in cell causes cell to swell against cell wall	179
7279837302	flaccid	plant clels in isotonic surrounding (limp)	180
7279837761	plasmolysis	plasma membrane pulls away from cell wall as water exists and cell shrivels, when in hypertonic solution	181
7279840569	facilitated diffusion	diffusion of polar molecules with the aid of transport proteins	182
7279841292	ion channel and gated channels	open and close in response to electrical stimuli	183
7279841937	active transport	requires energy to transport ATP phosphate group may be transferred to carrier protein, making it change shape and translocate from bound solute to membrane	184
7279843235	sodium potassium ion pump	exchanges Na and K across animal cell membranes, creating a high concentration of K ions and a low concentration of sodium ions in cell	185
7279844527	membrane potential	voltage across a membrane - favors transport of cations into cell because inside is negative and outside is positive	186
7279846291	electrochemical gradient	combination of forces acting on ion - chemical - conecntration gradient - electrical - effect of membrane potential	187
7279847272	proton pump	transports H out of cell and generates voltage across membrane in plants, fungi and bacteria	188
7279849724	cotransport	mechanism through which the active transport of a solute is indirectly driven by an ATP powered pump that transports another substance down its gradient - as the actively transported substance diffuses back down its concentration gradient through cotransporter, the solute is carried against concentration gradient across membrane	189
7279852445	exocytosis	cell secretes large molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane	190
7279852999	phagocytosis	form of endocytosis -pseudopodia wrap around a food particle adn engulf it, creating a vacuole - fuses with lysosome	191
7279854178	pinocytosis	droplets of extracelluar fluid taken into the cell in small vesicles	192
7279854602	receptor mediated endocytosis	enables a cell to aquire specific substances from extracellular fluid	193
7279855261	ligands	molecules that bind to receptor cites - attach receptor proteins (usually coated in clustered pits on cell surface) and are carried into cell when vesicle forms	194