AP Biology Review 2018 Flashcards
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| 13891563354 | Phospholipids | consist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic |  | 0 |
| 13891563355 | Protein structure and organization | composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular) |  | 1 |
| 13891563356 | *Nucleic Acids | DNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins | 2 | |
| 13891563357 | Nuclear Envelope | double membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER |  | 3 |
| 13891563358 | Chromatin | uncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division | 4 | |
| 13891563359 | Nucleolus | nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these |  | 5 |
| 13891563360 | Rough ER | covered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes |  | 6 |
| 13891563361 | Smooth ER | metabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons) | 7 | |
| 13891563362 | Golgi | stores, transports, and secretes cell products |  | 8 |
| 13891563363 | Cytoskeleton | supports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products | 9 | |
| 13891563364 | Centrosomes (2 centrioles) | only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division |  | 10 |
| 13891563365 | Lysosomes | only in animal cells, digestive organelles |  | 11 |
| 13891563366 | Extracellular Matrix | only in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell |  | 12 |
| 13891563367 | Central Vacuole | only in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells) | 13 | |
| 13891563368 | Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic | nucleoid / nucleus; only ribosomes / complex membrane-bound organelles; both have same genetic coding, sugars, and amino acids | 14 | |
| 13891563369 | Phospholipid Bilayer | tails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied | 15 | |
| 13891563370 | Passive trasport | movement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins) | 16 | |
| 13891563371 | Active transport | movement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis) | 17 | |
| 13891563372 | Hypertonic | solution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed |  | 18 |
| 13891563373 | Hypotonic | solution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid |  | 19 |
| 13891563374 | Isotonic | equal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid |  | 20 |
| 13891563375 | *Enzymes | proteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over | 21 | |
| 13891563376 | Substrate | the substance that an enzyme acts upon | 22 | |
| 13891563377 | Active Site | region of enzyme that binds to the substrate | 23 | |
| 13891563378 | The higher the substrate concentration... | ...the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated. |  | 24 |
| 13891563379 | Oxidative Phosphorylation | ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen | 25 | |
| 13891563380 | Electron Acceptors | Cellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2) Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH) | 26 | |
| 13891563381 | Glycolysis | Input: glucose, 2 ATP Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH |  | 27 |
| 13891563382 | Krebs Cycle | Input: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle) |  | 28 |
| 13891563383 | Electron Transport Chain | Input: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-) Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O |  | 29 |
| 13891563384 | Alcohol Fermentation | Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2) |  | 30 |
| 13891563385 | Lactic Acid Fermentation | Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2) |  | 31 |
| 13891563437 | Photosynthetic Equation |  | 32 | |
| 13891563386 | Light Reactions | Input: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+ Output: O2, ATP, NADPH |  | 33 |
| 13891563387 | Calvin Cycle | Input: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose |  | 34 |
| 13891563388 | Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strand | works toward replication fork / works away from replication fork; both always move in the 5' ➝ 3' direction | 35 | |
| 13891563389 | Steps of DNA Replication | 1) helicase separates the DNA strands 2) SSB proteins prevent DNA from reanneling 3) primase creates RNA primer 4) DNA polymerase extends DNA strand from the primer 5) DNA polymerase I (RNase H) removes the primers 6) ligase joins the okazaki fragments of the lagging strand |  | 36 |
| 13891563390 | 3 types of RNA | 1) mRNA messenger 2) tRNA transfer amino acids (20 kinds) 3) rRNA ribosomes | 37 | |
| 13891563391 | Transcription | 1) Initiation: promoter site (TATA) is recognized 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the 5' ➝ 3' direction 3) Termination: RNA strand separates, RNA polymerase recognizes termination sequence (AAUAAA) |  | 38 |
| 13891563392 | RNA processing/splicing | splicesomes remove introns and put together exons, 5' cap and PolyA tail are added |  | 39 |
| 13891563393 | Codon vs. Anticodon | codon = nucleotide sequence on mRNA anticodon = nucleotide sequence on tRNA | 40 | |
| 13891563394 | Translation | 1) Initiation: 5' cap attaches to ribosome which accepts an initiator tRNA at the P site (*AUG will always be 1st codon) 2) Elongation: codon/anticodon recognition and formation of peptide bond between A site amino acid and P site amino acid chain 3) translocation of the ribosome down the mRNA strand 4) Termination: ribosome will recognize stop codon and release the protein |  | 41 |
| 13891563395 | DNA mutations | base-pair substitution; insertion/deletion; frameshift: 1) missense = different protein 2) nonsense = codes for a stop signal prematurely 3) silent = no harmful change | 42 | |
| 13891563396 | Prokaryotic cell division | binary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation | 43 | |
| 13891563397 | Somatic cell vs. Gamete | any body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg) | 44 | |
| 13891563398 | Interphase | (90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis | 45 | |
| 13891563399 | Mitosis | 1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense |  | 46 |
| 13891563400 | Meiosis I | 1) Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair up and synapsis occurs, crossing over segments of the chromosomes (chiasma) to create more genetic variation 2) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equator 3) Anaphase: homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. 4) Telophase I... |  | 47 |
| 13891563401 | Meiosis II | Prophase II - Telophase II act exactly like mitosis except that the resultant number of daughter cells is 4 instead of 2, each with their own unique combination of genetic information |  | 48 |
| 13891563402 | 4 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation | 1) Mutation 2) Independent Assortment: homologous chromosomes align randomly on one side of the equator or another 3) Crossing Over 4) Random Fertilization: a zygote can be any combination of a sperm and egg (64 trillion different combinations in humans) | 49 | |
| 13891563403 | Testcross | breed a homozygous recessive individual with an individual with a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype to determine whether or not the individual is homozygous or heterozygous | 50 | |
| 13891563404 | Dyhybrid heterozygous cross ratio | 9:3:3:1 | 51 | |
| 13891563405 | Incomplete Dominance | heterozygous offspring have an intermediate phenotype of the parents, 1:2:1 ratio (ex. pink flower from red and white flowers) |  | 52 |
| 13891563406 | Codominance | both alleles manifest themselves separately in an organism's phenotype (ex. roan cattle) |  | 53 |
| 13891563407 | Multiple alleles | a trait controlled by two or more alleles (ex. blood type, eye color) |  | 54 |
| 13891563408 | Blood Types | A: A antigen, B antibody B: B antigen, A antibody AB: A and B antigen, no antibodies (universal recipient) O: no antigens, A and B antibodies (universal donor) | 55 | |
| 13891563409 | Polygenic Inheritance | the additive effect of 2 or more independently assorted genes on phenotype (ex. human skin pigment) |  | 56 |
| 13891563410 | 4 alterations to gene structure | 1) Deletion: removal of chromosomal segment 2) Duplication: repetition of a segment 3) Inversion: reversal of a segment within a chromosome 4) Translocation: movement of a segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous one | 57 | |
| 13891563411 | Transcription Factors and Enhancers | RNA polymerase requires the assistance of transcription factor proteins and enhancers or activators to successfully transcribe RNA | 58 | |
| 13891563412 | Epigenetic Inheritance | inheritance of traits not directly related to nucleotide sequence (ex. fat, sickly, yellow rats were fed a methylated diet, resulted in offspring that were normal-sized, healthy, and brown) | 59 | |
| 13891563413 | 5 Evidences for Evolution | 1) Biogeography 2) Fossil Record 3) Comparative Anatomy 4) Comparative Embryology 5) Molecular Biology | 60 | |
| 13891563414 | 4 conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (not evolving) | 1) very large population 2) isolation from other populations 3) no mutations 4) no natural selection | 61 | |
| 13891563415 | Microevolution vs. Macroevolution | change in the gene pool of a population over several generations / large scale changes in a population that leads to the evolution of a new species | 62 | |
| 13891563416 | 4 causes of Microevolution | 1) genetic drift 2) gene flow 4) natural selection | 63 | |
| 13891563417 | Genetic Drift | random change in gene frequency of a small breeding population: 1) Founder Effect = small population of organisms colonizes a new area, 2) Bottleneck Effect = sudden decrease in population size due to disaster | 64 | |
| 13891563418 | Gene Flow | loss/addition of alleles from a population due to imigration/emigration | 65 | |
| 13891563419 | Nonrandom Mating | selection of mates for specific phenotypes: 1) Assortative Mating = when individuals select partners with simple phenotypic characters, 2) Inbreeding = more recessive traits likely to come together | 66 | |
| 13891563420 | 3 Modes of Natural Selection | 1) Stabilizing: favors intermediate, 2) Directional: favors one extreme phenotype, 3) Diversifying: favors both extremes |  | 67 |
| 13891563421 | Heterozygote Advantage | heterozygotes for a trait are more likely to survive (ex. carriers of sickle cell anemia are immune to malaria) | 68 | |
| 13891563422 | Biological Species Concept | population whose members can create viable, fertile offspring (Problems: doesn't apply to extinct animals or asexually reproducing organisms) | 69 | |
| 13891563423 | Prezygotic Reproductive Barriers | 1) Habitat Isolation 2) Behavioral Isolation (differing behaviors for attracting mates) 3) Temporal Isolation (mate at different times) 4) Mechanical Isolation 5) Gametic Isolation (unable to fertilize egg) | 70 | |
| 13891563424 | Postzygotic Reproductive Barriers | 1) Reduced Hybrid Viability (disruption in embryonic stage) 2) Reduced Hybrid Fertility 3) Hybrid Breakdown (F1 is fertile, F2 is sterile or weak) | 71 | |
| 13891563425 | Allopatric Speciation | when populations become geographically isolated from the rest of the species and has the potential to develop a new species (ex. Adaptive Radiation: many diversely adapted species from common ancestor, Darwin's finches) |  | 72 |
| 13891563426 | Sympatric Speciation | members of a population develop gametic differences that prevent them from reproducing with the parental type (polyploidy, not as common) |  | 73 |
| 13891563427 | Punctuated Equilibrium vs. Gradualism | evolution occurs in short spurts of rapid change / each new species will evolve gradually over long spans of time |  | 74 |
| 13891563428 | Convergent Evolution | different organisms that occupy similar environments come to resemble one another (ex. dolphins and sharks) | 75 | |
| 13891563429 | Phylogeny | evolutionary history of a species or group of related species | 76 | |
| 13891563430 | Types of Symbiotic Relationships | Mutualism (+, +), Commensalism (+, 0), Parasitism, (+, -) | 77 | |
| 13891563431 | Niche | a position/role taken by a kind of organism within its community | 78 | |
| 13891563432 | Exponential vs. Logistic Growth | in logistic growth, carrying capacity will limit the population's size |  | 79 |
| 13891563433 | Density-dependent Regulation | Density-independent: natural disasters, human impact, etc. |  | 80 |
| 13891563434 | Keystone Species | species that exerts strong control on community structure not by numerical might but by their pivotal ecological roles or niches |  | 81 |
| 13891563435 | Energy Pyramid | each energy level receives only 10% of the pervious level's energy |  | 82 |
| 13891563436 | Gel Electrophoresis | analyzing fragments of DNA (RFLPs) by their length and charge to determine genetic fingerprints and other genetic information |  | 83 |