AP BIO Flashcards

13850679672	law of dominance	when 2 organisms homozygous for different traits are crossed to produce hybrids. only exhibit dominant trait	0
13850679673	law of segregation	during formation fo gametes, 2 traits carried by each parent separates	1
13850679674	monohybrid cross	cross between organisms hat are each hybrid for one trait	2
13850679675	testcross/backcross	determines genotype of an organism showing only the dominant trait	3
13850679676	law of independent assortment	cross between 2 individuals hybrid for 2 or more different traits (Tt x Yy)	4
13850679677	incomplete dominance	blending (black animal & white animal produce gray animal)	5
13850679678	codominance	both traits show. there are 2 allelic variants at a single gene locus.	6
13850679679	multiple allels	when there are more than 2 allelic forms of a gene. ex: human blood types A, B, AB, O	7
13850679680	pleiotropy	ability of a single gene to affect an organism in several ways ex: cystic fibrosis causes thick mucus that causes pleiotropic effects like poor absorption of nutrients and bronchitis	8
13850679681	epistasis	2 separate genes control one trait, but one gene masks the expression of the other. the gene that masks the expression of the other gene is epistatic ex: agouti coat color only occurs with A and B. Without B, A is albino	9
13850679682	polygenic inheritance	blending of several separate genes that vary along a continuum. ex: two parents who are short can produce child that is tall	10
13850679683	genomic imprinting	Variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele of from the male or female parent.	11
13850679684	extranuclear genes	Genes outside the nucleus, in the mitochondria and chloroplasts. ex: defects in mitochondrial genes can cause weakness in muscles	12
13850679685	multifactorial basis	a genetic component plus a significant environmental influence	13
13850679686	penetrance	The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype. ex: breast cancer gene	14
13850679687	linked genes	genes on the same chromosome. ex: humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell and therefore have 46 linkage groups. linked genes tend to be inherited together unless separated by crossover	15
13850679688	autosomes	Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. 44 of 46 chromosomes are autosomes	16
13850679689	sex-linked trait	traits carried on x chromosome	17
13850679690	recessive sex-linked traits	color blindness and hemophilia	18
13850679691	The farther apart 2 genes are located on a chromosome, the	more likely they will be separated during meiosis because of crossover	19
13850679692	site of crossover	chiasma	20
13850679693	somatic cell	body cell	21
13850679694	genetic mosaic	some cells have one X inactivated, other cells have other X inactiavted.	22
13850679695	Barr body	A dense body formed from a deactivated X chromosome.	23
13850679747	all females have one Barr body. males do not		24
13850679696	gene mutation	caused by change in DNA sequence	25
13850679697	chromosome mutation	can be observed under microscope	26
13850679698	karyotype	Procedure that analyzes the size, shape, and number of chromosomes	27
13850679699	chromosomal abberations	deletion inversion (chromosomal fragment reattaches in reverse orientation) translocation (chromosome fragment attaches to nonhomologous chromosome) polyploidy (extra sets of chromosomes)	28
13850679700	nondisjunction	chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis	29
13850679701	theory of endosymbiosis	Eukaryotic cells emerged when mitochondria and chloroplasts, once free-living prokaryotes, took up permanent residence inside other larger cells, about 1.5 billion years ago.	30
13850679702	prokaryotes don't have	nuclei or internal membranes	31
13850679703	function dictates	form	32
13850679704	nucleolus	place where rRNA is produced	33
13850679705	ribosomes	protein factories. found in cytoplasm or ER	34
13850679706	peroxisomes	contain catalase, which converts hydrogen peroxide into water	35
13850679707	endomembrane system	consists of Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles, and plasma membrane. regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions	36
13850679708	nucleus	chromosomes wrapped with proteins	37
13850679709	rough ER	studded with ribosomes. produces proteins	38
13850679710	smooth ER	1. production of steroid hormones 2.stores Ca2+ ions 3. detoxifies drugs	39
13850679711	lysosomes	digest with hydrolytic enzymes	40
13850679712	mitochondria	site of cellular respiration. have their own DNA	41
13850679713	vacul=oles	storage. freshwater protists have contractive vac to pump out water	42
13850679714	chloroplast	have inner membrane system called thylakoids	43
13850679715	cytoskeleton	1. microtubules make up cilia, flagella, spindle fibers. spindle fibers separate chromosomes 2. microfilaments made from actin filaments	44
13850679716	centrioles, centrosomes, MTOCS	organize spindle fibers	45
13850679717	plasma membrane	fluid mosaic model consists of phospholipid bilayer	46
13850679718	ligand	molecule that binds to a receptor	47
13850679719	sodium-potassium pump	pumps Na+ and K+ ions across a nerve cell	48
13850679720	bulk flow	movement of a fluid in a direction in an organism ex: blood moves my blood pressure and sap goes from source to sink	49
13850679721	gap junctions	allow materials to pass from cytoplasm of a cell to another. in plants - plasmodesmata	50
13850679722	3 stages of cell signaling	1. reception (ligand binds) 2. transduction (signal converted to a form that bring a response) 3. specific cellular response occurs	51
13850679723	second messengers	send messages inside signal after reception. ex: cAMP	52
13850679724	3 types of cell surface receptors	ion channel receptors, G-protein coupled receptors, and protein kinase receptors	53
13850679725	GPCRs are on when	it bonds to GTP, which activates adenylyl cyclase that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP	54
13850679726	RTKs	membrane receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosines. can trigger multiple pathways at once	55
13850679727	protein kinases	activate proteins	56
13850679728	protein phosphatases	inactivate proteins by removing phosphate groups	57
13850679729	apoptosis	programmed cell death	58
13850679730	apoptosis is carried out when	embryonic development, genetic damage that could lead to cancer, and plant defense against fungus	59
13850679731	molecules that can travel across plasma membrane	nonpolar substances. large polar molecules must travel through protein channel	60
13850679732	5 special traits of water	1. high specific heat 2. high heat of vaporization 3. universal solvent 4.strong cohesion-tension (capillary action, transpiration-pull cohesion tension) 5. ice is less dense than water (insulates water)	61
13850679733	structural isomer	same # atoms, different arrangement	62
13850679734	cis-trans isomers	differ in arrangement about a double bond	63
13850679735	enatiomers	mirror images	64
13850679736	pH	H+ concentration increases, pH decreases	65
13850679737	carbohydrates	CHO fuel and building material monosaccharides, glucose, galactose, fructose can be joined by dehydration synthesis or condensation	66
13850679738	lipids	fats, oils, waxes, steroids -most lipids consist of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids -cell membranes are made of phospholipids -saturated or unsaturated -energy storage, structural, endocrine	67
13850679739	proteins	-CHONSP -polymers consisting of units called amino acids bound by peptide bonds -amino acids are made of carboxyl group, amine group, and variable R	68
13850679740	primary structure	unique linear sequence of amino acids	69
13850679741	secondary structure	hydrogen bonding within polypeptide molecule. can be alpha helix or beta pleated sheet	70
13850679742	tertiary structure	3D shape protein. caused by bonding betwen R groups or disulfide bonds between cysteine amino acids	71
13850679743	quaternary structure	proteins that consist of more than one polypeptide chain	72
13850679744	denaturation	In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive.	73
13850679745	chaperonins	assist in folding of proteins	74
13850679746	techniques to reveal 3D shape of proteins	X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, bioinformatics	75
13850679748	functional groups		76
13850688899	first law of thermodynamics	Energy cannot be created or destroyed	77
13850688908	second law of thermodynamics	when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat)	78
13850690784	induced fit model	substrate binding to an active site improves the fit between the two	79
13850692043	enzymes often require assistance from	cofactors (inorganic) or coenzymes	80
13850694286	competitive inhibition	substance that resembles the normal substrate competes with the substrate for the active site	81
13850715823	noncompetitive inhibition aka allosteric regulators	bind to a site separate from active site of enzyme, which changes the enzyme into a shape that prevents enzyme from catalyzing substrate into product	82
13850729438	feedback inhibition	end product of pathway is allosteric inhibitor	83
13850730229	cooperativity	binding of one substrate molecule can stimulate binding or activity at other active sites	84
13850737828	anaerobic respiration	glycolysis + alcoholic fermentation/lactic acid fermentation	85
13850741121	aerobic respiration	glycolysis + Krebs + electron transport chain + oxidative phosphorylation	86
13850748460	glycolysis	takes 1 molecule of glucose --> 2 three carbon molecules of pyruvate. also produces ATP by substrate level phosphorylation. PFK is allosteric enzyme for glycolysis	87
13850781951	citric acid cycle	activated by acetyl coA (pyruvate with coenzyme A). Generates ATP per turn by substrate-level phosphorylation. Remainder of energy reduces NAD and FAD to shuttle electrons to e transport chain. Each turn of Krebs cycle makes 3 NADH, 1 ATP, 1 FADH	88
13851062759	electron transport chain	carries electrons delivered by NADH & FADH to oxygen. ETC consists of cytochromes.	89
13851089673	oxidative phosphorylation	ATP is produced through oxidative phosphorylation (chemiosmosis uses potential energy from proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP). produces the most ATP	90
13851091694	substrate-level phosphorylation	occurs when enzyme kinase transfers phosphate to ADP. produces small amount of ATP during glycolysis & Krebs	91
13851094815	alcoholic fermentation	anaerobic process in which cells convert pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol; carried out by many bacteria and fungi such as yeasts	92
13851096365	lactic acid fermentation	The conversion of pyruvate to lactate with no release of carbon dioxide.	93
13851100306	cholorophyll a	absorbs blue-violet and red light. participates directly in light reactions of photosynthesis	94
13851102869	what are the steps of non-cyclic photophosphorylation?	1. PII 2. photolysis: splitting of water for electrons and O2 as waste product 3. ETC: electron flow provides energy for ATP by chemiosmosis. 4. chemiosmosis: ATP formed during light reactions of photosynthesis (proton gradient). 4. NADP: reduced when it picks up 2 protons 5. PI	95
13851115960	sole purpose of cyclic photophosphorylation?	ATP production	96
13851122057	what are 2 possible routes for light-dependent reactions?	noncyclic flow or cyclic photophosphorylation	97
13851124659	what is the main process of light-independent reactions?	Calvin cycle	98
13851125848	what is the process that occurs in the Calvin cycle?	carbon fixation. Co2 enters cycle and attaches to 5-carbon sugar to become 6-carbon. The 6-carbon breaks down into two 3-carbon phosphoglycerate.	99
13851128290	what does calvin cycle use to run?	products of light reactions, ATP and NADH	100
13851140670	what are strategies to minimize water loss in plants?	photorespiration and C4 photosynthesis	101
13851159243	how is DNA structured?	helix. strands are antiparallel	102
13851161564	DNA is ____ conservative	semi	103
13851162661	where does DNA replication begin?	origin of replication	104
13851163227	DNA replication occurs	in both directions	105
13851165208	DNA polymerase catalyzes elongation by	adding nucleotides to the growing chain from 5' to 3'	106
13851165870	the leading strand runs	5' to 3'	107
13851166274	the lagging strand runs	3' to 5'	108
13851167603	the lagging strand is synthesized in pieces called	Okazaki fragments, which are then sealed by DNA ligase	109
13851169635	DNA pol III	adds nucleotides	110
13851170428	DNA pol I	removes the RNA primer and replaces it with DNA	111
13851180287	what are the steps to go from gene --> protein?	transcription (DNA -> RNA) to translation (RNA -> protein)	112
13851185325	what does transcription produce?	mRNA aka template strand	113
13851188274	what does translation do?	converts an mRNA message into a polypeptide or protein	114
13858403850	mRNA base triplets are called	codons	115
13858410787	RNA polymerase separates the 2 DNA strands and	connects RNA nucleotides as they base-pair along the template strand	116
13858453921	the DNA sequence that RNA polymerase attaches to is called	the promoter	117
13858472383	3 stages of transcription	initiation, elongation, termination	118
13858500748	transcription initiation complex is made of	transcription factors + RNA pol II	119
13858512587	what are 2 post-transcriptional modifications to RNA?	5' cap and poly-A tail	120
13858526861	snRNA is involved in ______.	excision of introns and joining of exons	121
13858542719	tRNA functions in transferring amino acids from cytoplasm to ____	a ribosome	122
13858578700	what are on the ends of tRNA?	amino acid, anticodon	123
13858603506	a ribosome is composed of	rRNA and protein	124
13858609833	What are the 3 binding sites for tRNA?	A, P, E	125
13858765151	what are 2 types of point mutations?	Base pair substitutions & Base pair insertions or deletions	126
13859104357	operons	inducible or repressible clusters of genes transcribed as a single mRNA	127
13859109786	3 parts of operon	operator, promoter, genes of the operon	128
13859149143	regulatory genes produce ______	repressor proteins that may bind to operator site and block RNA pol, turning the operon off	129
13859159274	a repressible operon is typically	on. anabolic	130
13859159275	a inducible operon is typically	off. catabolic	131
13859175640	DNA methylation causes DNA to become _____	tightly packed, reducing gene expression	132
13859187027	histone acetylation causes chromatin to become _____	less packed, encouraging transcription	133
13859204825	epigenetic inheritance	inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms that do not involve the nucleotide sequence (DNA expression is different)	134
13859240490	what 2 types of RNA can block gene expression?	micro RNA & interfering RNAs	135
13859298529	what 3 processes lead to different cell types in an organism?	cell division, cell differentiation, morphogenesis	136
13859310179	oncogenes are	cancer causing genes	137
13859315246	proto-oncogenes become oncogenes when	a mutation occurs that increases production	138
13859322687	what is an important tumor-suppressing gene?	p53	139
13859543828	operator	a sequence of nucleotides near the start of an operon to which an active repressor can attach	140
13859548314	RNA polymerase	Enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands during transcription	141
13859654760	transcription factors	help RNA polymerase bind to promoter	142
13859757168	primer are to DNA as promoter is to	RNA	143
13859798201	lac operon is an example of	an inducible operon (typically off, catabolic). the presence of lactose turns it on	144
13859842151	trp operon is an example of	a repressible operon (typically on, anabolic)	145
13859932070	prions are pathogens that	are misfolded, infectious proteins that cause the misfoldings of normal proteins in brain cells of various species	146
13859940660	an example of a prion disease	mad cow disease	147
13859961125	recombinant DNA is	artificial DNA, a combo of 2 organisms ex: human DNA & E. coli	148
13859966959	plasmid	A small, circular section of extra DNA	149
13859982516	restriction enzymes can	cut DNA at specific nucleotides	150
13864660317	restriction enzymes are used in	genetic engineering	151
13864751187	DNA ligase	enzyme that chemically links DNA fragments together	152
13864837605	steps of gene cloning	1. identify and isolate gene of interest and cloning vector 2. cut the gene of interest and vector w/ same restriction enzyme (giving plasmid and human gene same sticky ends) 3. join the two pieces of DNA 4. get the vector carrying the gene of interest into a host cell, (the plasmids are taken up by the bacterium by transformation) 5.select for cells that have been transformed	153
13864884511	nucleic acid hybridization	the base pairing of one strand of a nucleic acid to a complementary sequence on another strand. used to identify genes of interest	154
13864894457	PCR (polymerase chain reaction)	is used to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA	155
13864899255	gel electrophoresis	The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.	156
13865148178	restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)	small differences in DNA sequences that act as DNA fingerprints. used in rape and paternity tests	157
13865836157	DNA microarray assays	compare patterns of gene expression in different tissues, at different times, or under different conditions	158
13865842651	homeotic genes	Genes that determine basic features of where a body part is.	159
13866015285	Griffith proved	transformation in bacteria	160
13866017972	Meselson and Stahl proved	that DNA replicates in a semiconservative fashion	161
13866019765	Hershey and Chased discovered	nuclear material in the bacteriophage, not the protein coat, infects a bacterium.	162
13866024773	Rosalind Franklin	Used X-ray diffraction to discover the double-helical structure of DNA.	163
13893295831	G0 phase	A nondividing state in which a cell has left the cell cycle.	164
13893300152	G1 checkpoint	"restriction point", if a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the checkpoint, it will complete the G1,S,G2, and M phases and divide, if it does not receive a go-ahead signal at that point, it will exit the cycle, switching into the G0 phase	165
13893381436	CO2 is carried in the	plasma	166
13893387322	what is the blood buffer system called?	carbonic acid-bicarbonate ion system	167
13893427034	base and acid of blood buffer system?	carbonic acid lowers pH bicarbonate highers it	168
13893488927	atria	the two upper chambers of the heart, receive blood	169
13893493161	ventricles	the two lower chambers of the heart, and they pump blood out to the lungs and body.	170
13893509411	examples of temperature regulation	shivering, migration	171
13893524317	ectotherms	animals that are not able to control their body temperature	172
13893528945	endotherms	warm blooded, use metabolic processes to produce body heat	173
13893558278	north-south cline	Anatomical difference across a geographic range (small ear rabbits vs large ear rabbits)	174
13893576008	osmoregulation	regulation of solute concentrations and water balance by a cell or organism	175
13893584298	3 types of nitrogenous waste	urea, uric acid, ammonia	176
13893664528	filtration is kidneys is	passive and non-selective	177
13893677791	secretion in kidneys is	active and highly selective. uptake of contaminants not filtered into Bowman's capsule	178
13893690086	reabsorption in kidneys is	passive, active, and selective. movement of solutes from filtrate to blood	179
13893735801	nephron	Functional unit of the kidney, consisting of a glomerulus, renal tubule, and collecting tubule.	180
13894847297	aldosterone	Hormone that stimulates the kidney to retain sodium ions and water. in response to decrease in blood pressur eor volume	181
13894853682	ADH	released in response to dehydration due to excessive sweating or inadequate water intake	182
13894869179	renin	hormone secreted by the kidney that raises blood pressure	183
13895013057	positive feedback	Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output.	184
13895013058	negative feedback	a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus (hen there is enough of thyroxin, the hypothalamus stops stimulating the pituitary)	185
13897086144	eyeballs are an example of signal transduction pathway	-photons pass through lens -absorbed by photoreceptors -signal transduction pathway -G protein signaling mechanism triggered -	186
13906587410	what is the passage of a nerve impulse?	receptor -> sensory neuron -> interneuron -> motor neuron -> effector	187
13906597323	effector	gland/muscle	188
13906625700	membrane potential	difference in electrical charge between cytoplasm (-) and extracellular fluid (+)	189
13906632157	polarized state (resting potential)	unstimulated. -70mV	190
13906633925	the sodium potassium pump	maintains polarization	191
13906636780	a stimulus must be strong enough to overcome	the resting threshold, or resting potential	192
13906672256	if a stimulus triggers a sodium ion-gated channel, sodium flows into the cell and this results in	in decrease in polarization	193
13906678329	if a stimulus triggers a potassium ion-gated channel, potassium flows into the cell and this results in	membrane potential increases, membrane becomes hyperpolarized	194
13906686450	esterase	An enzyme that breaks down excess neurotransmitter	195
13906917113	example of cell signaling	activation of helper T cells that activate cytotoxic Tc cells	196
13907348310			197