APES- AP Exam Flashcards

13667562438	What is the Earth composed of?	A core, mantle, and a crust	0
13667568319	4 layers of the earth	inner core, outer core, mantle, crust	1
13667571701	What are the 2 types of crust?	oceanic and continental	2
13667571702	Oceanic crust	-denser than continental crust -made of basalt -has magnesium and iron	3
13667585548	Continental crust	-on top of oceanic crust -high amount of granite -also contains aluminum	4
13667594950	Mantle	-80% of earth's volume -has an upper and lower mantle	5
13667601770	Lithosphere	crust and upper mantle	6
13667604637	Asthenosphere	below the lithosphere -plastic like substance	7
13667615094	Outer core	-liquid metal -nickle and iron	8
13667617719	inner core	-solid metal -nickle and iron	9
13667626034	Sea floor spreading	The movement of the seafloor at the mid-ocean ridge -This is the reason that tectonic plates are in constant motion -convection currents cause it	10
13667709977	What are the 3 types of plate boundaries?	divergent, convergent, transform	11
13667737130	Transform boundaries	plates slide past each other -as they slide they stick, causing friction -can cause earthquakes -aka fault Examples: San Andreas Fault in Cali	12
13667760309	divergent boundary	plates move away from each other -most occur at mid-ocean ridges -can form rift valleys -mid-ocean ridges and underwater volcanoes Examples: Lake Tanganyika	13
13667901745	Convergent boundary	plates move toward each other and collide -there are 3 types	14
13667919416	ocean-ocean convergence	when 2 oceanic plates collide, the oldest and densest plate subducts (goes under) the younger plate -can cause volcanic island arcs Examples: Japan, Alaska	15
13667965373	ocean-continent convergence	a plate boundary where oceanic crust meets continental crust -Oceanic crust is denser so it subducts continental crust -Forms volcanic mountain ranges	16
13667991720	continent-continent convergence	a convergent plate boundary where two continental plates are colliding -neither plate is dense enough to subduct -forms mountain ranges -can also cause earthquakes Examples: Mt. Everest and the Himalayas	17
13668054610	Tsunamis	seismic sea waves generated from undersea earthquakes	18
13668067513	Types of volcanoes	shield, composite, cinder cone	19
13668070433	Shield volcanoes	large with broad sides and gradual slopes -seen at hotspots -nonviolent Examples: Hawaii	20
13668088807	Effects of volcanoes on environment	Increases hydrogen fluoride, Sulfur dioxide (S02), and HCl -this can lead to acid rain -also releases CO2	21
13668116569	Equinox	when day and night are equal	22
13668119195	Vernal equinox	Start of spring in the Northern Hemisphere and fall in Southern Hemisphere -Occurs March 21	23
13668130449	Autumnal Equinox	beginning of fall in the northern hemisphere and beginning of spring in southern hemisphere -occurs at the end of September	24
13668141087	Solstice	occurs when the sun is most north or south of the celestial equator	25
13668146834	Summer Solstice	June 21 for the northern hemisphere -longest day	26
13668150449	Winter Solstice	December 21 for the northern hemisphere -shortest day	27
13668178572	Why do seasons occur?	The tilt of Earth's axis causes sunlight to fall differently on Earth at different times of the year -seasons are based on amount of direct sunlight (this amount is impacted by the tilt)	28
13668193056	Composistion of the Atmosphere	78% nitrogen 21% oxygen 0-4% water vapor 0.93% Argon 0.038% Carbon Dioxide 0.01% Trace Gases	29
13668226179	Global warming	A gradual increase in average global temperature -caused by an increase in CO2	30
13668246505	Layers of the atmosphere	troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere	31
13668280537	Troposphere	The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere -weather occurs here -contains most of the mass (75%) and atmospheric water vapor -Temp decreases as altitude increases	32
13668304749	stratesphere	2nd layer of the atmosphere -Contains ozone layer -temp increases as altitude increases	33
13668318319	Mesophere	3rd layer of the atmosphere -air temp decreases with altitude	34
13668337938	Thermosphere	upper layer of the atmosphere -very thin air -contains ionosphere	35
13668352824	Ionosphere	layer of electrically charged particles -in the thermosphere	36
13668366740	Hadley air circulation cells	occur close to the equator -strongest of all 3 air circulation cells -causes air to rise and expand -releases moisture and causes high amounts of rain	37
13668424715	Ferrel Air Circulation Cells	occur at mid-latitudes between the Polar and Hadley cells	38
13668434283	Polar Air Circulation Cells	the northernmost of the 3 types of cells -contain dense cold air that move towards the poles	39
13675938520	El Nino	A period of ocean warming in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean -surface waters warm due to strong undercurrents of warm water	40
13675958631	Consequences of El Nino	-Warm winters in Northern US and Canada -Higher rainfall in eastern US and western S America -Drought in the western Pacific -Fisheries Collapse of S America	41
13675963184	La Nina	opposite of El Niño; climactic fluctuation involving abnormal cooling of waters off of Peru and Ecuador; unusually cold ocean temperatures around equator, some consider it normal conditions	42
13675973464	water cycle	The continuous process by which water moves from Earth's surface to the atmosphere and back	43
13675981379	Condensation	the transformation of water vapor from a gas to a liquid -droplets condense onto atmospheric particles -produces clouds and fog	44
13675989608	Evaporation	Transformation of water from liquid to gas phase due to heating of water -usually from solar radiation	45
13676001290	Infiltration	The process by which surface water seeps into the soil	46
13676052952	Percolation	The movement of water down through soil	47
13676055573	Transpiration	the loss of water vapor from plants, mainly from leaves	48
13676082813	Groundwater	water located below Earth's surface	49
13676085455	Runoff	water that flows along the surface but doesn't infiltrate it	50
13676125967	What percentage of the water is saltwater?	98%	51
13676128221	freshwater breakdown	2% of all water is freshwater -76% of freshwater is found in glaciers and icecaps	52
13676147558	rock cycle	the continual process that breaks down, alters, and re-forms rocks	53
13676150575	3 types of rocks	igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic	54
13676152505	igneous rock	forms from the cooling of magma -formed below earth's surface it is (intrusive) -if it cools quickly above the surface it is (extrusive)	55
13676183835	sedimentary rock	a rock that forms from compressed or cemented layers of sediment -examples: sandstone and limestone	56
13676197298	metamorphic rock	formed by heat and pressure -usually formed deep underground -examples: marble and slate	57
13676270075	soil formation	weathering of rock and the accumulation of organic material -based on 5 factors	58
13676276171	5 factors of soil formation	parent material, living organisms, topography, climate, and time	59
13676296575	weathering	The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface.	60
13676299127	3 types of weathering	physical, chemical, biological	61
13676301649	biological weathering	occurs from daily activities of organisms moving over soil Example: tree root breaks apart rock	62
13676305827	physical (mechanical) weathering	occurs when rock is broken down without any chemical change taking place -usually through wind water and other forces Example: Ice wedging	63
13676312414	chemical weathering	occurs when chemical reactions from water and atmospheric gases reacting with parent material Example: acid rain	64
13676341612	soil profile	Layers of soil -O, A, E, B, C, R,	65
13676388237	O horizon	organic matter -includes living organisms, decaying matter, and waste	66
13676400383	A horizon	Topsoil -mix of organic matter with inorganic materials -includes weathered parent material	67
13676408557	E horizon	eluviated layer -zone of leaching	68
13676418558	B horizon	subsoil -contains components leached from the layers above -includes nutrients, organic matter, and minerals	69
13676426503	C horizon	Least weathered soil horizon -contains larger fragments of parent material	70
13677486923	R horizon	Bedrock -parent material -last soil horizon	71
13677497528	soil porosity	amount of open space between each soil particle -ration of void space to total volume -higher porosity=higher water holding capacity	72
13677510172	Soil texture	Used to describe grain size in soils Divided into 3 main groups: Clay, silt, and sand	73
13677516580	Clay	fine particles, low permeability	74
13677520292	silt	fine particles, larger than clay	75
13677520293	sand	larger particles, water passes through easily	76
13677552087	What holds the most water?	Sand, then silt, and then clay	77
13677555377	Loam	even mixture of sand, silt, and clay -best soil for growing	78
13677579233	Population	A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area at the same time	79
13677582539	Community	made up of multiple populations of different species in a give	80
13677627257	habitat	Place where an organism lives -includes soil, vegitation, water, and more	81
13677636130	ecosystems	made up of all living and nonliving components interacting in a specific area at the same time	82
13677650597	Biomes	-large ecological areas dominated by a particular plant type -a broad, regional type of ecosystem characterized by distinctive climate and soil conditions and a distinctive kind of biological community adapted to those conditions.	83
13677662755	keystone species	species that have an important and dramatic effect on the ecosystem in which they live	84
13677731023	Niche	How an organism makes its living and interacts with the biotic and abiotic factors in its habitat -how it uses resources and its role in the community	85
13677753386	Generalist	organisms that have the ability to survive in a variety of environments -can easily adjust	86
13677762692	Specialist	organisms that have adapted to a specific environment and a certain role within that niche -more vulnerable to change -can't adjust easily	87
13677781289	Competition	process by which organisms fight for the same resources -both are harmed	88
13684976211	Predation	one organism captures and feeds on another organism -one is harmed the other benefits	89
13684980405	Parasitism	One organism benefits and the other is harmed	90
13684983411	Herbivory	Animals consume plant tissues -one is helped the other is harmed	91
13684988127	Commensalism	one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed	92
13684994292	Ammensalism	relationship when one organism is harmed, the other is unaffected	93
13685009586	Mutualism	two organisms both benefit from the other	94
13685017801	tropical rainforest	-high precipitation year round -warm -a lot of diversity -acidic soil -near equator	95
13685027393	tropical dry forest	-low rain (has a rainy and dry season) -warm temperature -deciduous plants -India, Africa, etc	96
13685038258	Temperate rain forest	-high precipitation year round -moderate temp -coniferous trees -Japan, Northwest US	97
13685046039	temperate deciduous forest	-rain is evenly spread -temp varies seasonally -deciduous trees -China, Europe, North America -Fertile soil	98
13685058612	boreal forest	-long cold winters and short cool summers -moderate temp -forests -Canada, Alaska, Russia -aka Taiga	99
13685071269	Savanna	-short rainy season -usually warm -grasslands, zebras, lions, etc -Africa, India, South America	100
13685078615	Chaparral	-very seasonal, wet winters and dry summers -mild winters, warm summers -shrubs -California, Chile, etc -frequent fires	101
13685089728	temperate grassland	-low precipitation -variation in temp -Grasses, Bison -NA, SA, central Asia -aka prairie	102
13685102255	Tundra	-low precipitation -cold winters, cool summers -lichens, polar bears, little vegetation -Arctic Russia, Canada -located at high latitudes	103
13685124181	Desert	-lowest amount of precipitation out of all biomes -variation in temp -soil is usually saline	104
13685143774	Photosynthesis	Plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars -most important biological process for living organisms -6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy= C6H12O6 + 6 O2	105
13685157714	cellular respiration	the process of "burning" the carbohydrate glucose in the presence of oxygen to release the stored energy for use by the organism -C6H12O6 + 6 O2= 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy	106
13685187325	food chain	a simple layer of energy flow from the producer to various consumers	107
13685222844	food web	more realistic and complex flow of energy from producers to consumers to the decomposers	108
13685233819	primary consumer	herbivore	109
13685233820	secondary consumer	Carnivore that eats herbivores.	110
13685237065	tertiary consumer	A carnivore that eats secondary consumers	111
13686920825	Biodiversity	the total of all species in a given area at a specific time -healthy ecosystems are diverse	112
13686935634	species richness	the number of species in an area -linked to the type of biome and its latitude	113
13686948231	natural selection	Genetic traits strengthen an organism's chance of survival and these traits are passed down. -alters genetic makeup of a population -creates a new species	114
13686976018	The 5 types of natural selection	1. Directional Selection 2. Stabilizing Selection 3. Disruptive Selection 4. Sexual Selection 5. Artificial Selection	115
13686983039	stabalizing selection	occurs when a population's characteristics stay within a range and neither extreme is dominant -normal model on graph	116
13686995619	disruptive selection	Fewer individuals fall within the average -individuals will be at one extreme or the other	117
13687011128	directional selection	Favors one extreme of the population	118
13687039364	Speciation	Formation of new species -genetic isolation creates new species	119
13687093717	HIPPO	-habitat loss -invasive species -pop growth -pollution -overharvesting (threatens biodiversity and extinction)	120
13687148371	ecological succession	predictable change in a given area	121
13687166036	2 types of ecological succession	primary and secondary succession	122
13687168358	primary succession	succession that occurs on surfaces where no soil exists -area has never supported life before -ex: new volcanic islands like Hawaii was	123
13687175344	secondary succession	reestablishment of a damaged ecosystem in an area where the soil was left intact -ex: after a fire, tornado, human activity, etc	124
13687239774	biogechemical cycle	Describe the movement of nutrients throughout ecosystems. -aka nutrient cycles	125
13687295889	Growth Formula	growth= (birth - death) + (immigration - emigration)	126
13687326780	population ecology	the study of factors that cause populations to increase or decrease	127
13687337601	Types of population distribution	clumped, uniform, random	128
13687346973	clumped distribution	-most common in nature -animals come together around a resource	129
13687358289	random distribution	-most rare -spaced with no organization or intention -ex: algae floating in the ocean	130
13687378313	uniform distribution	-second most common -equal distance between each organism -ex: crops, wolves	131
13687397224	population density	Number of individuals per unit area	132
13687408404	carrying capacity	The maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by a particular habitat at a given time	133
13687423566	2 patterns of growth	exponential and logistic	134
13687426811	exponential growth	-j curve -no limits	135
13687438285	logistic growth	-s curve -has limits	136
13687448510	limiting factor	a population reaches its carrying capacity based on this	137
13687451269	2 types of limiting factors	density dependent and density independent	138
13687456996	density dependent factors	-limiting factor that depends on population size -become more intense as pop increases -disease, competition, etc	139
13687474945	density independent factors	-don't depend on size, have the same affect no matter how large or small the pop is -natural disasters	140
13694779244	K-selected species	-have few offspring -care for offspring (k for care) -specialists -examples: humans, elephants, horses, and cows	141
13694818664	r-selected species	-rapid population growth (j curve) think r for rapid -lots of offspring -little to no care -generalists -examples: spiders, fish, mice, and frogs	142
13694835299	survivorship curve	represent # individuals alive at each age for a given species	143
13694843984	Type I survivorship curve	-Most individuals survive to middle age -ex: humans, large mammals	144
13694861649	Type II survivorship curve	-Length of survivorship is random. Likelihood of death is the same at any age -ex: rodents, birds, reptiles	145
13694882944	Type III survivorship curve	-Most individuals die young. Very few survive to reproductive age and beyond -ex: sea turtles, trees, insects	146
13694938323	Rule of 70	time pop takes to double = 70/annual growth rate	147
13694956382	Demographic Transition Model	explains the shifts in birth and death rates -has 4 stages: pre-industrial, transitional, industrial, post-industrial	148
13694995592	pre-industrial stage	-very slow growth -death and birth rates are high	149
13695004514	Transitional stage	-rapid growth -death declines but birth is still high	150
13695009493	Industrial stage	-growth slows -birth and death rates stabilize	151
13695018486	post-industrial stage	-very slow growth -birth and death rates are low	152
13695041114	age structure diagram	show the distribution of ages throughout a population -can help predict what will happen to a pop over time -aka pop pyramids or age pyramids	153
13695073983	traditional agriculture	uses human power, animal power, and simple tools	154
13695093232	subsitence agriculture	when enough food is produced by a family for its own consumption and use	155
13695104666	industrialized agriculture	large-scale agriculture	156
13700900555	The green revolution	the advent of industrialized agriculture in the mid and late 20th century	157
13700916256	Green Revolution (Pros and Cons)	Pros -high crop yields, increases variation, increased irrigation, infastructure Cons -Gmos, monoculture, more pesticides	158
13700931177	GMOs	genetically modified organisms -ex: golden rice, BT corn, and cotton	159
13700938293	Seed banks	preserve genetic material of endangered plants	160
13700943998	drip irrigation	Allows water to go directly onto plants, as opposed to mass spraying of water on an entire field	161
13700962824	sustainable farming	Some modern farmers use a variety of methods to reduce the environmental impact of growing crops, including the conservation of soil, land and water. -there are 6 techniques	162
13700983095	no-till farming	farmland is only minimally disturbed while it is being prepared for crops.	163
13700991053	crop rotation	the alternation of the types of crops grown on a piece of land from year to year or season to season -allows nutrients to return to soil	164
13701000279	Intercropping	Planting alternative crops throughout a field -reduces the impact of a single disease or crop-specific insects and can reduce erosion and nutrient depletion	165
13701007955	Shelterbelts	Created when tall plants or trees are planted along the edges of fields or farms -reduces the wind that creates erosion	166
13701015172	contour farming	Plowing rows across a hill, following the hill's contour lines -reduce erosion	167
13701019217	Terracing	Used on the steep slopes of mountainous terrain -minimizes erosion and retains water in areas that are typically unsuitable for planting crops	168
13701029237	Pesticides	synthetic chemicals and natural substances used to control pests	169
13701039351	Fedlots	areas where livestock are fed high in energy to fatten them up before market -aka factory farms or concentrated animal feeding operations	170
13701071983	subsurface mining	Deep underground mining where a resource is concentrated in a pocket or seem deep underground -most dangerous form of mining -tunnels collapse, explosive gas, low oxygen, toxic chemicals and more	171
13701090906	strip mining	layers of surface soil and rock are removed from large areas to expose the resource -safest form of mining but most harmful to the environment	172
13701100352	open pit mining	involves digging a large hole and removing the ore and the unwanted rock surrounding the ore	173
13701110075	mountain top removal	a mining technique in which the entire top of a mountain is removed with explosives -used for coal	174
13701144880	reclamation	the process of returning land to its original condition after mining is completed	175
13701152593	Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA)	Regulates coal-mining activities to protect both humans and the environment -also governs the restoration of abandoned mining locations	176
13701161788	General Mining Act of 1872	Gives people the right to prospect and mine on federal lands, except for in areas like national parks	177
13701172977	Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)	Controls hazardous waste throughout its entire life cycle, including generation, transportation, treatment, storage and disposal	178
13702098057	Fishing techniques (3)	bottom trawling, long-lining, and drift netting	179
13702102070	bottom trawling	Dragging a large net along the bottom to capture organisms -can crush the reefs and other organisms -most destructive type of fishing	180
13702124036	long lining	Involves dragging a fishing line with hooks behind a boat or attaching it to an anchor -High rate of bycatch -considered the best technique	181
13702136259	Drift netting	practice of dragging large nets through the water to catch fish -large amount of bycatch -banned in some places	182
13702146893	tradgedy of the commons	essay written by Garret Hardin in 1968 -wrote about the unregulated resources that will be depleted soon -overharvesting of fisheries is an example	183
13702167423	United nations convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)	Sets up naval boundaries and the extent of waters that belong to the nations surrounding those boundaries	184
13702176236	Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA)	Regulates waste disposal in marine water in the US -Also known as the Ocean Dumping Act)	185
13702185210	Aquaculture pros and cons	Pros: -reduces bycatch, energy efficient, reduces consumption Cons: Increases risk of disease, increased antibiotics, fish can escape, more waste	186
13702212506	Laws of Thermodynamics	1) Energy can not be created nor destroyed, it may only be changed from one form to another. 2) Systems naturally flow from states of high energy (low entropy) into states of low energy (high entropy).	187
13744672325	3 types of fossil fuels	coal, oil, natural gas -all nonrenewable -all release CO2 and cause pollution	188
13744676005	coal	-most abundant fossil fuel -cheap with little processing involved -formed in an anaerobic environment	189
13744792857	Types of coal	peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite	190
13744796435	oil	-we are rapidly running out -involves a lot of processing -mixture of varied weight hydrocarbons and organic compounds found on the Earth's surface -get it through primary and secondary extraction	191
13744893926	primary extraction	-Gushers -Causes oil to rise up "naturally" through the well and out -20% of oil is recovered this way	192
13745001855	secondary extraction	-pump water or other chemicals into the oil reserve to push oil into the wells -Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking) is one type	193
13745017317	types of oil	oil shale and tar sands	194
13745020175	natural gas	-usually found with crude oil -extracted through Hydraulic Fracturing	195
13745040773	Nuclear fission	-the splitting of an atom's nucleus into two smaller nuclei	196
13745070105	half-life	length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay	197
13748862876	Hydropwer	-Use kinetic energy of moving water to turn turbines and generate electricity -Dams -Dependable	198
13748887184	ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)	the use of temperature differences in ocean water to produce electricity -still in the experimental stages of development	199
13748895579	tidal energy	Uses the energy of tide water in order to generate electricity -Water enters a dam during high tide, and then spins a turbine as the water leaves the dam at low tide	200
13748916760	biofuel	Liquid fuel created from processed or refined biomass -used to power cars -2 types are ethanol and biodiesel	201
13748934629	geothermal energy	Energy from steam or hot water produced from hot or molten underground rocks	202
13748952901	wind energy	Convert the wind's kinetic energy into electrical energy -expensive to build cheap to run	203
13748962587	solar energy	energy from the sun -2 ways: passive and active	204
13748980622	active solar heating	uses technology to collect, move, and store heat derived from the sun	205
13748990688	passive solar heating	Designing a building to collect, store, and distribute the sun's energy without the use of technological devices like solar panels	206
13856930488	point source pollution	Pollutants discharged from a single identifiable location (e.g., pipes, ditches, channels, sewers, tunnels, containers of various types).	207
13856930854	nonpoint source pollution	pollution that comes from many sources rather than from a single, specific site	208
13856948881	primary pollutants	harmful substances emitted directly into the air ex: VOCs, CO, NPx, SO2, PM Lead	209
13856957460	secondary pollutants	when a primary pollutant interacts with one another OR with the basic components of air to form new harmful substances. ex: O3, HNO3, H2SO	210