Biochemistry Flashcards

14603698850	amino acids	molecules that contain an amino group and a carboxyl group	0
14603698851	amphoteric	compound that contains both an acid and a base	1
14603698852	zwitteron	has both positive and negative charge, but the overall molecule is neutral	2
14603698853	peptide	composed of amino acid subunits	3
14603698854	conjugated proteins	derive part of their function from covalently attached molecules	4
14603698855	enzymes	important biological catalysts	5
14603698856	substrate	molecule upon which an enzyme acts	6
14603698857	active site	location upon which an enzyme acts	7
14603698858	feedback regulation	the inhibition of an enzyme by its product	8
14603698859	feed-forward activation	The stimulation of an enzyme by an intermediate that precedes the enzyme in a metabolic pathway	9
14603698860	negative feedback	helps maintain homeostasis	10
14603698861	competitive inhibition	occupancy of the active site	11
14603698862	noncompetitive inhibition	bind to an allosteric site instead of the active site	12
14603698863	mixed inhibition	when an inhibitor can bind to either the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex, but has a different affinity for each	13
14603698864	uncompetitive inhibition	-bind only to the enzyme-substrate complex, locking the substrate into the enzyme	14
14603698865	allosteric enzymes	Alternate between an active and inactive form	15
14603698866	collagen	trihelical fiber and makes up most of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue	16
14603698867	elastin	important component of the extracellular matrix that has a primary role of stretching and recoiling	17
14603698868	keratins	intermediate filament proteins found in epithelial cells	18
14603698869	actin	protein that makes up microfilaments and thin filaments in myofibrils	19
14603698870	tubulin	protein that makes up microtubules	20
14603698871	myosin	primary motor protein that interacts with actin	21
14603698872	cell adhesion molecules	proteins found on the surface of most cells and aid in binding the cell to the extracellular matrix or other cells	22
14603698873	cadherins	A group of glycoproteins that mediate calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion	23
14603698874	integrins	have to membrane-spanning chains, alpha and beta	24
14603698875	selectins	bind to carbohydrate molecules that projects from other cell surfaces	25
14603698876	Antibodies (immunoglobulins)	proteins produced by beta-cells that function to neutralize targets in the body	26
14603698877	biosignaling	a process in which cells receive and act on signals	27
14603698878	ion channels	proteins that create specific pathways for charged molecules	28
14603698879	facilitated diffusion	a type of passive transport; the diffusion of molecules down a concentration gradient through a pore in the membrane; simple diffusion for molecules that are impermeable to the membrane	29
14603698880	ungated channels	have no gates and are therefore unregulated	30
14603700442	voltage gated channels	gate is regulated by the membrane potential change near the channel	31
14603701987	ligand gated channel	the binding of a specific substance or ligand to the channel causes it to open or close	32
14603708648	membrane spanning domain	anchors receptors in cell membrane	33
14603709415	ligand binding domain	stimulated by the appropriate ligand and induced a conformational change that activates the catalytic domain	34
14603712100	G-protein coupled receptors	a large family of integral membrane proteins involved in signal transduction	35
14603712894	electrophoresis	subjects compounds to an electrical field, which moves them according to their net charge and size	36
14603716245	chromatography	uses physical and chemical properties to separate and identify compounds from complex mixtures	37
14603719497	edman degradation	uses cleavage to sequence proteins of up to 50 to 70 amino acids	38
14603721903	stereoisomers	compounds that have the same chemical formula, but different spatial arrangement	39
14603724966	enantiomers	stereoisomers that are nonidentical, nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other	40
14603728858	Haworth projection	describes the 3D conformation of cyclic structures	41
14603729571	aldonic acids	oxidized aldoses	42
14603731772	tautomerization	rearrangement of bond in a compound, usually by moving a hydrogen and forming a double bond	43
14603737045	polysaccharides	long chains of monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds	44
14603741948	homopolysaccharide	composed entirely of glucose	45
14603743596	heteropolysaccharide	polymer made up of more than one type of monosaccharide	46
14603744980	cellulose	main structural component of plants	47
14603746458	starches	polysaccharides that are more digestible by numbers	48
14603749683	glycogen	carb storage unit in animals; branched polymer of glucose represents a storage form of glucose	49
14603751226	amphipathic	has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions	50
14603753815	phospholipids	phosphate and alcohol polar heads, hydrophobic fatty acid tail held together by phosphodiester linkages; move rapidly in the plane of the membrane through simple diffusion	51
14603757860	glycerophospholipids	specifically those phospholipids that contain a glycerol backbone bonded by ester linkages to two fatty acids	52
14603761178	sphingolipids	have a sphingosine backbone	53
14603762825	waxes	esters of long chains of fatty acids with long chain alcohols	54
14603764905	terpenes	class of lipids built from isoprene moieties and share a common structural pattern with carbons grouped in multiples of five	55
14603766607	monoterpenes	single terpene, two isoprene	56
14603767696	sesquiterpenes	three isoprene units	57
14603769456	diterpenes	four isoprene units	58
14603769931	triterpenes	six isoprene units	59
14603771396	tetraterpenes	eight isoprene units	60
14603772097	steroids	metabolic derivatives of terpenes and are very different from other lipids	61
14603776252	steroid hormones	secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream and then travel to protein carriers	62
14603777804	cholesterol	major component of the phospholipid bilayer and is responsible for mediating membrane fluidity	63
14603779901	prostagladins	produced by almost all cells in the body and are unsaturated carboxylic acids	64
14603781784	vitamin	an essential nutrient that cannot be adequately synthesized by the body	65
14603783184	vitamin A	unsaturated hydrocarbon that is important in vision, growth, development, and immune function	66
14603784525	vitamin D	can be consumed or found in a UV light-driven reaction in the skin	67
14603786056	vitamin E	characterized by a substituted aromatic ring with a long isoprenoid side chain and are characterized as hydrophobic	68
14603790171	vitamin K	vital to the posttranslational modifications required to form prothrombin	69
14617190559	adipocytes	store large amounts of fat and are found primarily under the skin, around mammary glands, and in the abdominal cavity	70
14617192183	saponification	the ester hydrolysis of triacylglycerols using a strong base	71
14617193089	surfactant	lowers the surface tension at the surface of a liquid, serving as a detergent or emulsifier	72
14617195238	micelles	tiny aggregates of soap with hydrophobic tails turned inward and hydrophilic heads turned outward	73
14617197268	nucleosides	composed of a five-carbon sugar bonded to a nitrogenous base	74
14617197867	nucleotides	formed when one or more phosphate groups are attached to c-5' of a nucleoside	75
14617199466	nucleoproteins	acid-soluble and tend to stimulate processes such as transcription	76
14617200411	heterochromatin	appears dark under light microscopy and is transcriptionally silent	77
14617201582	euchromatin	dispersed chromatin	78
14617202254	replisome (replication complex)	a set of specialized proteins that assist the DNA polymerases	79
14617204073	helicase	enzyme responsible for unwinding DNA, generating two single-stranded template strands ahead of polymerase	80
14617204855	supercoiling	a wrapping of DNA on itself as its helical structure is pushed even further toward the telomers during replication	81
14617206325	metastasis	migration to distant tissues by the bloodstream	82
14617207146	oncogenes	mutated genes that cause cancer	83
14617207635	DNA cloning	a technique that can produce large amounts of a desired sequence	84
14617208070	restriction enzymes	enzymes that recognize specific double-stranded DNA sequences	85
14617209199	DNA libraries	large collections of known DNA sequences	86
14617209894	genomic libraries	contain large fragments of DNA and include both coding and noncoding regions of the genome	87
14617210788	hybridization	joining of complementary base pair sequences	88
14617211661	polymerase chain reaction	an automated process that can produce millions of DNA sequences without amplifying the DNA in bacteria	89
14617213957	southern blot	used to detect the presence and quantity of various DNA strands in a sample	90
14617215117	transgene	a disease-producing allele	91
14617215645	gene	a unit of DNA that encodes a specific protein or RNA molecule	92
14617216305	Messenger RNA (mRNA)	carries the information specifying the amino acid sequence of the protein to the ribosome	93
14617218646	Transfer RNA (tRNA)	responsible for converting the language of nucleic acids to the language of amino acids and peptides	94
14617219525	Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)	synthesized in the nucleolus and functions as an integral part of the ribosomal machinery used during protein assembly	95
14617222489	point mutation	if a mutation occurs and it affects one of the nucleotides in a codon	96
14617224265	missense mutation	a mutation where one amino acid substitutes for another	97
14617224911	nonsense mutation	A mutation where the codon now encodes for a premature stop codon	98
14617227545	frameshift mutation	occurs when some number of nucleotides are added to or deleted from the mRNA sequence	99
14617228342	transcription	the creation of mRNA from a DNA template	100
14617229297	introns	noncoding sequences that stay in the nucleus	101
14617229875	exons	ligate coding sequences that exit the nucleus as part of the mRNA	102
14617231353	translation	process of converting the mRNA transcript into a functional protein	103
14617231867	phosphorylation	addition of a phosphate group by protein kinases to activate or deactivate proteins	104
14617233734	carboxylation	addition of carboxylic acid groups, usually to serve as calcium-binding sites	105
14617235503	glycosylation	addition of oligosaccharides as proteins pass through the ER and Golgi apparatus to determine cellular destination	106
14617237289	prenylation	addition of lipid groups to certain membrane-bound enzymes	107
14617238221	operon	a cluster of genes transcribed as a single mRNA	108
14617238680	Jacob-Monod model	used to describe the structure and function of operons	109
14617240270	structural gene	codes for the protein of interest	110
14617240663	operator site	A nontranscribable region of DNA that is capable of binding a repressor protein	111
14617241046	promoter site	provides a place for RNA polymerase to bind	112
14617241899	regulator gene	codes for a protein knows as the repressor	113
14617242267	negative control	when the binding of a protein reduces transcriptional activity	114
14617244629	repressible systems	allow for constant production of a protein product	115
14617245257	transcription factors	transcription-activating proteins that search the DNA looking for specific DNA binding motifs	116
14617246752	DNA binding domain	binds a specific nucleotide sequence in the promoter region	117
14617247738	activation domain	allows for the binding of several transcription factors and other important regulatory proteins	118
14617249336	enhancer	allows for the control of one's gene expression by multiple signals	119
14617250117	cell membrane	a semipermeable phospholipid bilayer	120
14617251326	lipid rafts	collections of similar lipids with or without associated proteins that serve as attachment points for other biomolecules	121
14617259111	flippases	assist in the transition or "flip" between layers	122
14617259683	gap junctions	allow for direct cell-cell communication and are often found in small bunches together	123
14617260442	tight junctions	prevent solutes from leaking into the space between cells via paracellular route	124
14617261609	desmosomes	bind adjacent cells by anchoring to their cytoskeletons	125
14617262331	hemidesmosomes	attach epithelial cells to underlying structures	126
14617263479	simple diffusion	substances move down their concentration gradient directly across the membrane	127
14617264556	osmosis	water moves from a region of low solute concentration to one of higher solute concentration	128
14617265331	carriers	only open to one side of the cell membrane at any given point	129
14617268308	occluded state	carrier is not open to either side of the phospholipid bilayer	130
14617268557	channels	viable transporters for facilitated diffusion	131
14617269297	active transport	results in the net movement of a solute against its concentration gradient	132
14617284087	symport	when both particles flow in the same direction across the membrane	133
14617285550	antiport	when the particles flow in opposite directions	134
14617286591	endocytosis	occurs when the cell membrane invaginates and engulfs material to bring it into the cell	135
14617287547	pinocytosis	the endocytosis of fluids and dissolved particles	136
14617288198	phagocytosis	ingestion of large solids such as bacteria	137
14617288646	exocytosis	occurs when secretory vesicles fuse with the membrane, releasing material from inside the cell to the extracellular environment	138
14617289826	membrane potential	the difference in electrical potential across cell membranes	139
14617290417	cristae	numerous infoldings which increase the available surface area for the integral proteins associated with the membrane	140
14617291096	GLUT 2	a low difinity transporter in hepatocytes and pancreatic cells	141
14617292342	GLUT 4	in adipose tissue and muscle and responds to glucose concentration in peripheral blood	142
14617293226	glycolysis	a cytoplasmic pathway that converts glucose into two pyruvate molecules, releasing a modest amount of energy	143
14617295991	hexokinase	widely distributed in tissues and is inhibited by its product, glucose-6-phosphate	144
14617297737	glucokinase	found only in liver cells an pancreatic B-islet cells	145
14617298746	phosphofructokinase-1	the rate-limiting enzyme and main control point in glycolysis	146
14617299556	phosphofructokinase-2	converts a tiny amount of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-2,6-biphosphate	147
14617301832	Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase	catalyzes an oxidation and addition of inorganic phosphate to its substrate	148
14617302632	3-phosphoglycerate kinase	transfers the high energy phosphate from 1,3 biphosphoglycerate to ADP forming ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate	149
14617306562	pyruvate kinase	activated by fructose 1,6-biphosphate from the PFK-1 reaction	150
14617308528	dihydroxyacetone phosphate	used in hepatic acid and adipose tissue for triacylglycerol synthesis	151
14617309145	galactose	the disaccharide lactose present	152
14617309523	epimerases	enzymes that catalyze the conversion of one sugar epimer to another	153
14617310420	glycogenesis	synthesis of glycogen granules	154
14617312464	glycogen synthase	the rate-limiting enzyme of glycogen synthesis and forms alpha-1,4-glycosidic bond found in the linear glucose chains of the granule	155
14617315550	branching enzyme	responsible for introducing alpha-1,6-linked branches into the granule as it grows	156
14617319686	glycogenolysis	process of breaking down glycogen	157
14617320691	glycogen phosphorylase	breaks alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds, releasing glucose 1 phosphate from the periphery of the granule	158
14617321699	debranching enzyme	a two-enzyme complex that deconstructs the branches in glycogen that have been exposed by glycogen phosphorylase	159
14617328122	isoforms	slightly different versions of the same protein	160
14617328485	pyruvate carboxylase	a mitochondrial enzyme that is activated by acetyl CoA	161
14617329636	Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase	induced by glucagon and cortisol, which act to raise blood sugar	162
14617331015	Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase	key control point of gluconeogenesis and represents the rate-limiting step of the process	163
14617332625	glucose-6-phosphotase	found only in the lumen of the ER of liver cells	164
14617333364	NADPH	acts as an electron donor in a number of biochemical reactions	165
14617334885	proton-motive force	an electrochemical proton gradient generated by the complexes of the electron transport chain	166
14617336070	complex 1	transfer of electrons from NADPH to coenzyme Q	167
14617339273	complex 2	receives electron from succinate	168
14617339599	complex 3	facilitates the transfer of electron from coenzyme Q to cytochrome C	169
14617340589	Q cycle	two electrons are shuffled in from a molecule of upiquinone	170
14617341305	complex 4	facilitates the culminating step of the electron transport chain	171
14617342032	chemiosmotic coupling	allows the chemical energy of the gradient to be harnessed as a means of phosphorylating ADP	172
14617343619	conformational coupling	suggests that the relationship between the proton gradient and ATP synthesis is indirect	173
14617345674	hormone-sensitive lipase	hydrolyzes triacylglycerols yielding fatty acids and glycerol	174
14617346568	lipoprotein lipase	necessary for the metabolism of chylomicrons and very low density proteins	175
14617348005	lipoproteins	aggregates of apolipoproteins and lipids	176
14617348778	chylomicrons	highly soluble in both lymphatic fluid and blood and function in transport of dietary triacylglycerols, cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters to other tissues	177
14617350765	LDL	deliver cholesterol to tissues for biosynthesis	178
14617351296	HDL	synthesized in the liver and intestines and released as dense, protein rich particles in the blood	179
14617353002	apoproteins	form the protein component of lipoproteins	180
14617353572	citrate shuttle	carries mitochondrial acetyl-CoA into the cytoplasm	181
14617354343	nontemplate synthesis	lipid and carbohydrate synthesis	182
14617354921	proteolysis	breakdown of proteins	183
14617355256	urea cycle	occurs in the liver and is the body's primary way of moving excess nitrogen out of the body	184
14617356139	open systems	exchange both energy and matter with the environment	185
14617357227	closed systems	do not exchange matter with the environment	186
14617357946	internal energy	the sum of all of the different interactions between and within atoms	187
14617358528	bioenergetics	energy states in biological systems	188
14617358903	homeostasis	a physiological tendency toward a relatively stable state that is maintained and adjusted	189
14617360022	insulin	a peptide hormone secreted by the B-cells of the pancreatic islets of langerhans	190
14617361842	glucagon	a peptide hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets of langerhans	191
14617364130	glucocorticoids	responsible for part of the stress response	192