Chapter 26
Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire, the Islamic Heartlands, and Qing China

1. I. Introduction
   1. A. By mid-18th century, looked like China was doing great
      1. 1. Controlled interaction with European “barbarians” – missionaries/traders to specified ports
      2. 2. Population, trade, agricultural production growing
      3. 3. Territory largest since 7th century Tang
   2. B. By mid-18th century, Ottoman looks like it’s falling apart
      1. 1. Austrian Hapsburgs/Russians chipping away at empire
      2. 2. African Muslim kingdoms broke away
      3. 3. Economic problems – rising inflation, European imports
      4. 4. Social problems – crime, rebellion
      5. 5. Military can’t keep back Europeans
   3. C. But by 19th century, they’re both falling apart
      1. 1. China shows how vulnerable they are
         1. a. Impact of European industrialization huge
         2. b. Overpopulation, paralyzed government, massive rebellions – internal problems
      2. 2. Ottomans still hanging in there
         1. a. New leaders/new Western reforms
   4. D. By 20th century
      1. 1. China imploding with ½ century of foreign invasions, revolution, social/economic collapse
         1. a. Suffering on scale unmatched in human history
      2. 2. In Ottoman Empire
         1. a. New leaders take over power from sultanate
         2. b. Turkish area becomes a nation
         3. c. But…Middle East now exposed to Europe ***
2. II. From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Problems due to series of weak rulers
         1. a. Power struggles between ministers, religious experts, Janissaries
         2. b. Local leaders + landowners (ayan) cheat sultan of money due to him
         3. c. Role of artisans/merchants declines with European impact
            1. 1. Merchants survived through European contacts
      2. 2. Can’t defend outer areas
         1. a. Limited money for military, inferior technology
         2. b. Russians push for warm-water port in Black Sea
         3. c. Throughout 1800s European holdings revolt
            1. 1. Greece, Serbia, Balkans
   2. B. Reform and Survival
      1. 1. But… “sick man of Europe” still survives – Europeans afraid to break up – power struggle
         1. a. British actually help Ottoman Empire to counter Russian advance
            1. 1. Concerned Russians might hurt British naval dominance
      2. 2. Question becomes – how to reform?
         1. a. Attempts at reform squashed by competing groups
            1. 1. Sultan Selim III pushes for improved bureaucracy, navy, army
               1. a. Janissary corps, powerful bureaucrats feel threatened – he dies
            2. 2. Mahmud II – 1826 gets rid of Janissaries
               1. a. Great soup kettle debacle of 1826
               2. b. Sultan’s secret military force slaughters Janissaries
               3. c. Limits powers of ayan
               4. d. What reforms to make?
                  1. 1. Ulama – religious leaders = push for conservative theocracy
                  2. 2. Mahmud chooses option B – Western reform
                     1. a. Creates ambassadors to Europe
                     2. b. Westernizes military
            3. 3. Next…Tansimat reforms
               1. a. Westernized university education
               2. b. State run postal, telegraph, railroad
               3. c. Legal reforms
               4. d. Effect of reforms
                  1. 1. Killed artisans – no import taxes – people buy European
                  2. 2. Women no effect – ignored cries for end to
                     1. a. Seclusion, veiling, polygamy
                     2. b. uneducatedness (not a word) – want education
   3. C. Repression and Revolt
      1. 1. Irony – once you’ve westernized, then your western administrators want to end sultanate
         1. a. New elites compete with older conservatives (ulama and ayan)
      2. 2. Abdul tries to end reforms by becoming a despot – the old liberal vs. conservative backlash
         1. a. Abdul Hamid restricts civil liberties – freedom of the press
         2. b. “troublemakers” imprisoned or killed
         3. c. but…still pushed for Westernization
            1. 1. Especially Western military techniques/technology
            2. 2. Judicial reforms, education, railroad, telegraph
      3. 3. Ottoman Society for Union and Progress “Young Turks” – push for reform
         1. a. Want 1876 Constitution and more reforms
         2. b. Eventually assassinate Abdul Hamid in 1908
            1. 1. Sultan becomes figurehead
            2. 2. Elite officers come to power
               1. a. Begin reign by fighting back battles in Balkans
               2. b. Survive by playing European rivalries against each other
         3. c. World War I in 1914 makes this revolution irrelevant
         4. d. Arab world suffers
            1. 1. They thought 1908 revolution would give them more freedom – wrong
            2. 2. Turks want to subjugate Arabs even more
3. III. Western Intrusions and the Crisis in the Arab Islamic Heartlands
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. Different ways of reversing decline of Islamic world
         1. a. Return to Islamic past
            1. 1. Some rose up to lead jihads, holy wars, against Europeans
         2. b. Large-scale adaptation of Western ways
         3. c. Combine two approaches
            1. 1. Egypt’s Muhammad Ali will try to combine both
      2. 2. Arab world growingly frustrated with Turkish/Ottoman rule
         1. a. But…can’t stop European threat
         2. b. Muslims at one point had destroyed/evenly matched Christendom
         3. c. Annoyed that they’d been displaced as the leading civilization
   2. B. Muhammad Ali and the Failure of Westernization in Egypt
      1.  
         1. 1. 1798 Napoleon tries to invade Egypt
            1. a. Squares off against Mamluk (slave) regime
            2. b. Napoleon able to defeat tens of thousands of Mamluks w/ firepower
               1. 1. Medieval armor and spears vs. Napoleon’s artillery
            3. c. Symbolic of how far behind Muslim world was
            4. d. Eventually British sink Napoleon’s navy – Napoleon returns w/out conquering
         2. 2. Albanian Muhammad Ali rises and realizes strength of West
            1. a. Tries to adapt European style military force
               1. 1. Hired French officers
               2. 2. Conscription for peasants
               3. 3. imported French weapons
               4. 4. Adopted Western tactics/methods of supply
            2. b. Built best fighting force in Middle East & navy
            3. c. But…didn’t totally transform economy to pay for military
               1. 1. Told peasants to increase production…hey thanks…
               2. 2. Some new harbors, canals, irrigation
               3. 3. Can’t build industry because European goods so much cheaper
            4. d. After death, Egyptians intermarried with Turks
               1. 1. Khedives – Ali’s descendants – rule until 1952
   3. C. Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance
      1. 1. Economic problems
         1. a. Making cotton one staple crop leads to market fluctuation – rely on imports
            1. 1. See US South…
         2. b. Wealth wasted on expensive pastimes
            1. 1. What…rich people wasting money on their entertainment? Unprecedented
         3. c. Egypt goes into debt to European financiers
            1. 1. Europe wants access to cheap cotton
            2. 2. Europe wants access to Suez Canal – 1869
            3. 3. From then on, France/Britain continually involve selves
               1. a. Want debt repaid – start influencing more
            4. 4. British troops end up supporting puppet governments – khedives
               1. a. Justified after British fought back revolt of Ahmad Orabi – 1880s
               2. b. Begins direct British rule of Islamic heartland
      2. 2. Strategies of resistance
         1. a. Muslim thinkers start meeting to discuss options
            1. 1. Jihad – drive infidels from Muslim lands
            2. 2. Return to religious/social life under Muhammad (perceived) - Revivalists
            3. 3. Borrow scientific learning and technology from West
               1. a. Logic – they only made them from Muslim knowledge
   4. D. Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan
      1. 1. Egyptian rule over Sudan resented
         1. a. Egypt conquers sedentary people, but trouble with nomads
            1. 1. Taxes high
            2. 2. Leaders corrupt
            3. 3. Favoritism of some Sudanese tribes over others
            4. 4. Egyptians tried to get rid of lucrative slave trade – how dare they?
      2. 2. Enter Muhammad Achmad
         1. a. Get spiritual visions – could he be the promised one – Mahdi
            1. 1. Escapes from kidnapping, has visions – this guy must be a prophet
         2. b. Attacks Egyptians, then plans for Ottoman Empire and Europe – easy buddy.
            1. 1. Guerilla warfare
            2. 2. Blessings and magical charm given confidence
         3. c. Land conquered they reform
            1. 1. Control drink and smoking
            2. 2. Severely punish theft, prostitution, adultery
      3. 3. Finally defeated by British General Kitchener – machine guns, artillery just too much
         1. a. Europeans threatened by biggest threat to their dominance of continent
         2. b. 1898 – British win – expand control to interior Africa
      4. 4. Is there nothing that can stop the new masters of the world?
4. IV. The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China
   1. A. Introduction
      1. 1. China’s isolation and disdain for outside world comes back to haunt them
         1. a. After century of successful Manchu rule, government turns corrupt/ineffective
      2. 2. Manchus – Nurhaci – 1559-1626 organized nomads, unites tribes, attacks Northern China
         1. a. Elite begin adopting Chinese ways
         2. b. Manchus actually invited in by the Ming to help put down a rebellion
            1. 1. They end up invading Beijing in 1644, and then pushed South
            2. 2. Forced submission of nomadic peoples on west, tribute from south Kingdoms
            3. 3. Took on dynasty name of Qing
         3. c. Allowed Chinese scholar gentry to maintain influence
            1. 1. Though Manchus – only 2% of population – clearly took over power
         4. d. Unlike Mongols…
            1. 1. Retained examination system
               1. a. Let sons take courses
            2. 2. Most recent Son of Heaven – adopted ideology
            3. 3. Practiced traditional Confucian virtues
            4. 4. Patrons of the arts
   2. B. Economy and Society in the Early Centuries of Qing Rule
      1. 1. Manchu maintained Chinese social structure
         1. a. Respect/acceptance for rank/hierarchy
         2. b. Suspicion of other social organizations – guilds/secret societies
         3. c. Women treated poorly
            1. 1. Infanticide increases – men actually outnumber women
               1. a. A financial drain on the household – dowry
            2. 2. Males marry women below them in social status – male control
            3. 3. Only power in elite households – maybe control other women/younger men
      2. 2. Focused on making lives better for farmers
         1. a. Tax breaks for those that resettle lands
         2. b. Tax/labor demands lowered
         3. c. Money spent on repairing infrastructure
      3. 3. But…landlords become dominant
         1. a. Supply and demand – more peasants than land – owners control terms
         2. b. Nobles prove status by clothes/carried in sedan chairs
            1. 1. Some even grow nails long – don’t have to work – not nasal cleansing
      4. 4. Loosen control of commerce – actually makes gains
         1. a. New ways of financing
         2. b. Lucrative markets for traders
            1. 1. Wealthy new group of merchants – compradors
   3. C. Rot from Within: Bureaucratic Breakdown and Social Disintegration
      1. 1. But then things start to fall apart
         1. a. Exam system riddled with cheating/favoritism
            1. 1. Bribes examiners, scholars paid to take exam for the rich
            2. 2. Sons of officials put in places of power – nepotism vs. meritocracy
            3. 3. Merchants/landowners put in power
               1. a. Lack the Confucian values
            4. 4. Bureaucracy became means of improving lives of wealthy/not poor
         2. b. Money given to wealthy families, not for infrastructure
            1. 1. Money taken from military – left unprotected
            2. 2. Unrepaired dikes destroy land > famine and disease
         3. c. Widespread migration – banditry, vagabonds
      2. 2. Why wasn’t this dynasty merely replaced by another? Key points!!!
         1. a. Ming era brought in American crops – population explosion
         2. b. Refusal to bring in technological innovations to satisfy this population
         3. c. Corruption and conservative Manchus prevented needed changes
         4. d. Also, different “barbarians” - Westerners
   4. D. Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After
      1. 1. Europeans larger threat than nomads – technology makes up for numbers
      2. 2. Europeans had to find a way to balance trade
         1. a. Bad – silks, fine porcelains, tea for silver bullion
         2. b. Good – let’s get them addicted – how about to Indian opium? Yeayyy!!!
      3. 3. Chinese a bit upset about opium trade
         1. a. Sapping economy of bullion – can’t pay for public works
         2. b. Plus – people get addicted – 1% addicted to drug, opium dens, officials useless
      4. 4. For years, laws against opium not enforced until…
         1. a. Lin Zexu enforces the laws
         2. b. Blockades Canton from European traders – warehouses searched
            1. 1. Opium confiscated and destroyed
         3. c. Surprisingly, Europeans annoyed – property rights being infringed
            1. 1. Easily won naval, land war of 1839-1841
         4. d. From victory – China forced to open ports – not just Canton/Macau anymore
            1. 1. 90 ports – 300,000 traders by 1890s
      5. 5. China treated as subservient to Europe after 1850
         1. a. No protective tariffs to protect Chinese manufacturing
         2. b. Had to accept European ambassadors in court – as equals
         3. c. Opium trade rolls in unchecked
   5. E. A Civilization at Risk: Rebellion and Failed Reforms
      1. 1. Rebellions go on across the land
         1. a. Christian, yet psycho prophet Hong Xiuquan leads the Taiping Rebellion
            1. 1. Promised social reform, land redistribution, liberation for women
            2. 2. Attacked Confucian values – wanted to create simpler script
               1. 1. Make literacy more possible for everyone
            3. 3. Eventually local landowners create military that stops rebellion
               1. 1. Plus…Hong Xiuquan losing his mind
         2. 2. Manchu rulers refuse to institute necessary reforms
         3. 3. End of dynasty – final straw was Cixi – powerful empress
            1. a. Imprisons nephew in Forbidden City
            2. b. Spends money on fancy marble boat, not on military
         4. 4. Boxer Rebellion – 1989-1901 – European, American, Japanese put down
            1. a. Boxers trying to end foreign economic/political control
            2. b. Insult to injury – gov’t then has to pay EAJs for their losses
   6. F. The Fall of the Qing: The End of a Civilization?
      1. 1. Secret societies start popping up
         1. a. Yes…you’ve all heard of the dreaded White Lotus, Triads and Society of Elders and Brothers
            1. 1. Failed amazingly – no $ and poorly organized
            2. 2. But…set precedent…became training ground for future rebellions
      2. 2. Some Western-educated leaders support a Europeanesque political reform
      3. 3. Rising middle class
         1. a. Mad at Manchus and foreigners
            1. 1. Cut off queues – no not a bank line – that insulting little ponytail thing
      4. 4. Finally in 1911 – students + mutinies from imperial troops + secret socities uprising
         1. a. Puyi forced to abdicate thrown – last emperor anyone?
      5. 5. 1905 – Civil service exam given for last time – don’t cry…it’s over
         1. a. Can’t solve China’s problems with Confucian ideals from 2500 years ago
         2. b. End of the Confucian system – violently destroyed
            1. 1. Massive civil bureaucracy
            2. 2. Rule by educated/cultivated scholar-gentry
            3. 3. Artistic accomplishments of old now criticized
5. V. Global Connections
   1. A. Why did Islamic civilization survive, but Chinese civilization fall?
      1. 1. China – domestic upheavals and foreign aggression
      2. 2. Western threat nothing new for Muslims – warring for centuries
         1. a. China – threat was sudden, brutal
      3. 3. China…so we’re not the center of the world? Shattered in a few decades
      4. 4. Muslims actually shared elements of civilization with Westerners – ironic
         1. a. Muslims actually played role in rise of the West
            1. 1. Easier to accept technology from the West
         2. b. But for Chinese…we can’t accept anything from the hairy barbarians
      5. 5. Muslims have many centers that needed to be conquered not just one
      6. 6. Gradual nature of Western advance
      7. 7. Chinese lost faith in their civilization formula
      8. 8. Chinese have no great religious tradition to fall back on
         1. a. Oh yeah…well at least we have…whoops
         2. b. Muslim faith became basis of resistance
      9. 9. Muslims only partially colonized
   2. B. Different from Latin America – already connected to the West
   3. C. Different from Russia and Japan
      1. 1. Retained fuller independence…but we’ll have to read about that in next chapter