Urbanization- an increasing concentration of the population in cities and the
transformation of land use and society to a metropolitan pattern of organization
-Nearly half the people in the world now live in urban areas
-By the end of the 21st Century 80-90% will live in urbanized areas
-Rural area- most residents depend on agriculture or other ways of harvesting and natural resources
for their livelihood
-Urban area- a majority of the people are not directly dependent on natural resource based
occupations
-Village- a collection of rural households linked by culture, custom, family ties and an association
with the land, sense of community and connection, can be stifling
-City- a differentiated community with a population and resource base large enough to
specialize in arts, crafts, services rather than natural resource based occupations, freedom to
experiment, be upwardly mobile and break from restrictions, can be harsh and impersonal
-Mega-city- beyond about 10 million inhabitants

World Urbanization
-19th and early 20th centuries-US undergoes major shift
-Many developing countries are experiencing similar demographic movement
-In 1850 only 2% of the world's population lived in cities
-2000-47% live in cities
-Only Africa and South Asia remain predominantly rural
Some urbanologists believe that the whole world will be urbanized to the level of developed
countries by 2100
-90% of pop. Growth in next 25 years is expected to occur is less developed countries- mostly in
already overcrowded cities of poor countries such as India, China and Brazil
-in 1900- 13 cities had a population over 1 million- all in NA or Europe by 1995 there were
1300 metropolitan areas with over 1 million people only 3 in developing countries

Causes of Urban Growth
-2 ways that urban populations can grow-natural increase-more births than deaths, immigration
-Natural increase is fueled by improved food supplies, better sanitation, and advances
in medical care-reduced death rates can cause populations to grow both in cities and rural areas
around them
-Immigration to cities can be caused by push factors (force people out of the country) pull
factors (draw them into the city)
-Push factors- people migrate to cities for many reasons
-Countryside can not support massive populations
-"Surplus" population is forced to migrate to cities in search of jobs, housing in some places
economic forces or political, religious or racial conflicts drive people out of their homes
-UN estimated that in 1992 at least 10 million fled their native country and that another 30-40
million were internal refugees within their own countries, displaced by political, economic or
social instability
-Land tenure patterns and changes in agriculture also play a role in pushing people into cities
-Pull factors- jobs, excitement, vitality and desire to meet people who are similar
-Jobs, housing, entertainment and freedom of constraints of village traditions
-Possibilities exist in the city for upward social mobility, prestige of power not ordinarily
available in the countryside
-City supports specialization in arts, crafts, and markets, which do not exist elsewhere
-Modern communication
-90% of the people in Egypt have access to a television set
-Government policies often favor urban over rural areas in ways that both push and pull people into
the cities
-Developing countries spend most of their budgets on improving urban areas even though only a small
percentage of the population lives their or benefits from the industry
-Governments often manipulate exchange rates for the benefit of more politically powerful urban
populations but at the expense of rural people

Current Urban Problems in the developing world
-90% of human pop growth in next century is expected to occur in the developing world in Asia,
Africa and South America
-Problems will occur especially in largest cities, which already have trouble supplying food, jobs
and basic services for their residents
Traffic and congestion- in less developed countries there is an overwhelmingly amount of
pedestrians and vehicles that clog the streets
-Noise, congestion and confusion of traffic make it seem suicidal to venture into the street
-Air pollution- dense traffic, smoky factories and use of wood/coal fires create a thick pall of air
pollution in the world's super cities
-Lenient pollution laws corrupt officials, inadequate testing equipment, ignorance about the
sources and lack of funds to correct the situations cause the problem
Sewer systems and water pollution-
-Modern waste treatment systems are too expensive to build for rapidly growing populations
-35% of urban residents in developing countries have sanitary systems
-400 million people (one third) of the population in developing cities have safe drinking water
-Many rivers and streams, little more than open sewers, used for washing clothes, cooking,
bathing, and drinking
-Diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, cholera are widespread diseases
-Infant mortality ­ high
-Housing-
Slums- legal but inadequate multifamily tenements rooming houses
Shantytowns- settlements created when people move onto undeveloped lands and build their own houses
Shacks- built of corrugated metal, discarded packing crates, plastic sheets, or whatever
building materials people can scavenge
Squatter towns- people occupy land without owners permission
-Three quarters of residents of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Luwanda live in refugee camps
Current problems in the developed world:
-Urban Sprawl- pattern of urban growth where cities spread out and consume open space and waste
resources
-In a study of 213 American urban areas, David Russ found that between 1960 and 1990 total
population grew 47% while land use increased by 107%
-Atlanta, Georgia (1990-2000) 32% growth
-In some metropolitan areas, 1/3 of land is used for automobiles
-Traffic congestion costs the U.S. 78 billion dollars in wasted time and fuel.
-To solve this, people want to buy more freeways, but this will cause people to drive even further
than before.
-Sprawl causes the city to be unable to maintain its infrastructure (schools, parks, streets and
other buildings fall into disrepair)

Sustainable Community Design:
-Smart Growth- proposed by many urban planners, makes effective and efficient use of land
resources and existing infrastructure, aims to provide a mix of land uses to create a variety of
affordable housing choices and opportunities. Goal: not to block growth, but to channel it to areas
where it can be sustainable in the long term. Protects environmental quality by conserving
farmland, wetlands and open space. Portland, Oregon has a boundary on outward expansion and is
considered one of the best cities in America because of its urban amenities. Between 1970-1990,
the population grew 50%, land use only grew by 2%.
-Garden Cities- neighborhoods separate from the central city by a green belt of forests and
fields. Done in the early 1900s in London by Ebeneezer Howard who wrote a book called Garden
Cities of Tomorrow
-Planned Communities are built in the United States as well.
New Urbanist Movement:
-Redesign metropolitan areas to make them more efficient, appealing and livable.
-Examples: Stockholm, Sweden, Helinski, Finland and Leicester, England
-Urban Ecology Research- LTER (Long Term Ecological Research) in Phoenix and Baltimore,
funded by national science foundation, researches every aspect of urban ecology, advocate for
environmental justice (toxic materials and how they affect the health of the population)
Examples: Detroit has many children with elevated levels of lead in their blood, linked to
low-income, old housing
-Design for Open Space-
-Conservation Development- cluster housing or open space zoning preserves at least half of the
subdivision is natural spaces, farmland etc.
-Ian McHarg, Frederic Steiner and Randall Arendt have led these movements in places such as
Farmview, PA, Hawksnest, WI

Sustainable Development in the Third World-
-Immediate needs are housing, clean water, sanitation, food, education, health care and basic
transportation for the residents
-Redistribute unproductive land
-Some people believe that social justice and sustainable economic development are the answers,
because if people have the opportunity and money to buy better housing, adequate food, clean water,
sanitation and other things they need for a decent life, they will do so.
- Social Welfare system ensures that old people will not be alone and abandoned.

Sustainable Development
Environmental Literacy
- every citizen is fluent in the principles of ecology and has a "working
knowledge of the basic grammar and underlying syntax of environmental wisdom"- according to EPA
administrator William K. Reilly
- An important part of environmental education
- Creates a stewardship ethic-care for environment and its resources for the long run
- Helps prepare for life in the next century
- Hope for students to continue learning about the environment:
Books to read to help with this:
- My First Summer in the Sierra by John Muir
- Silent Spring by Rachel Carson
- Walden by Henry David Thoreau

Environmental Movement
1. Student Environmental Groups
- Projects to teach ecology and environmental ethics to students as well as to get them involved
in active projects to clean up their local community.
- Kids Saving the Earth
- Eco-Kids Corps.
- Student Environmental Action Coalition (SEAC)-work on activities like promoting recycling
and lobby against industrial projects
2. Mainline Environmental Organizations
- Influential and powerful forces in environmental protection
- Help pass legislation like the Clean Air Act
- National Wildlife Federation
- Sierra Club
- Ducks Unlimited
3. Radical Environmental Groups
- Direct action groups
- Often associated with the deep ecology philosophy and bioregional ecological perspective
- Main tactics: civil disobedience, attention-grabbing actions like guerrilla street
theater and picketing. (rar!)
- Earth First!
- Sea Shepard
- Earth Liberation Front
4. Wise Use Movement
- Advocate conservation rather than preservation of natural resources
- National Cattlemen's Association
- National Farm Bureau (these organizations have great names, don't they?)

Personal Choices and Personal Action
- Write to elected officials and urge them to support environmental causes.
- Petition
- Email them political folks
- Run for a local office
- Participate in practical environmental projects-i.e. litter cleanup- Clean Sweep!, restoration projects