anatomical orientations -

• anterior - head end
• posterior - tail/hindmost end
• dorsal - back
• ventral - belly/underside
• medial - middle of body
• lateral - sides of body
• distal - away from point of attachment
• proximal - nearer to point of attachment

digestive system -

• glottis - opening from larynx into trachea
• epiglottis - tissue that closes off the glottis when food is swallowed
  • keeps food out of the respiratory tract
• mouth - where starch digestion begins
• esophagus - muscular tube that transports food
• stomach - physical/chemical digestion of proteins
• liver - produces bile to emulsify fats
  • largest internal organ
• jaundice - yellow staining of tissues due to blocked excretion of bile
• gallbladder - stores bile
• pancreas - secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine
• small intestine - primary chemical digestion, nutrient absorption
• cecum - pouch at beginning of large intestine
  • helps w/ cellulose digestion in herbivores
• large intestine - vitamin production/absorption
  • compacts waste
• anus - exit for waste products
• sphincter - ring of circular smooth muscle
  • prevents food from moving back through digestive tract
  • humans lack true sphincters

lymphatic system -

• thymus - around neck/heart
• spleen - filters dead blood cells
  • flap to the left of the stomach

urinary system -

• kidneys - filters blood, excretes nitrogenous waste
• nephron - functional unit of kidney
• ureters - passageway for urine from kidney to bladder
• bladder - stores urine
• urethra - connects bladder to outside

reproductive system -

• male reproductive parts
  • testes - gonad where sperm is created
  • epididymis - sperm storage site
  • ductus deferens (vas deferens) - tubes through which sperm travels to penis
  • seminal vesicle - secretes into semen
  • prostrate gland - secretes basic environment into semen
  • bulbourethral glands - secretes lubrication into semen
• female reproductive parts
  • ovaries - gonad where ova are created
  • fimbria - fingerlike projections that sweep ova into tube
  • oviducts (fallopian tubes) - where egg is fertilized
  • uterus - where fertilized egg implants
  • ectopic pregnancy - fertilized egg implants outside of the uterus
  • urogenital sinus - fusion of vagina, urethra
  • vagina - birth canal

circulatory system -

• arteries lead away from heart, veins lead toward heart
• pulmonary circulation - between heart and lungs
• systemic circulation - between heart and rest of body
• major arteries -
  • aorta - largest artery in body, carries blood from left ventricle
  • pulmonary artery - only artery to carry deoxygenated blood
  • common carotids - directs blood toward the head, along the trachea
  • subclavians - branches off from aortic arch towards upper body
  • branchiocephalic trunk - branches off from aortic arch, leads to carotids/subclavians
  • celiac artery - leads to stomach/pancreas
  • renal arteries - leads to kidneys
• major veins -
  • anterior (superior) vena cava - major vein connecting upper body and right atrium
  • posterior (inferior) vena cava - major vein connecting lower body and right atrium
  • internal/external jugulars - returns blood from head
  • branchiocephalic veins - returns blood from upper body
  • renal veins - returns blood from kidneys
• heart - 4 chambers
  • atria - receives blood from body/lungs
  • ventricles - pumps blood to body/lungs
  • atrioventricular valves - separates atria from ventricles
  • semilunar valves - separates ventricles from outside of heart
  • chordae tendonae - “heartstrings” that keep valve flaps closed >> prevents backflow