Grant Clay

12.0pt">Period 3

9/7/08

12.0pt"> 

AP Psychology Outline

Chapter 3: The Biological Bases of Behavior

 

Red – Definition

Blue - Important Points

Green - Important People & Contributions

 

Nervous System: The Basics

1. Neurons – Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.
   
   1. They are basic links that allow communication within the Nervous System.
   2. Soma – Cell Body of the neuron that contains the nucleus and much of cells normal organs.
   3. Dendrite – Parts of a Neuron that receives information.
   4. Axon – Long fiber that transmits information away to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
   5. Myelin Sheath – Insulating Material that encases some Axons.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l6 level3 lfo1;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      It speeds up to transmission of information.

6. Terminal Button – Small knobs where neurotransmitters are transmitted activating neighboring neurons.       
7. Synapse – Junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another.
8. There is lots of variety among Neurons, so not all neurons contain all these parts.
1. Glia – Cells in Nervous System that provides various support for neurons.
   
   1. Glial cells supply nourishment to neurons, remove neurons waste products, and provide insulation around many axons.

 

The Neural Impulse: Using Energy to Send Information

tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Neural Impulse – The signal that moves through the Neuron.

tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman";color:green">2.        All the Study of the Neuron done on a Squids Neuron (Which is much bigger than a Humans) By Hodgkin and Huxley.

tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Neuron At Rest

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         The Neuron at rest is a small battery, from the uneven Ion charges from the fluid around it of Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K).

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Resting Potential – The Stable, Negative Charge when the Cell is inactive.

tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">2.        The Action Potential

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Action Potential – A very brief shift in a Neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Absolute Refractory Period – Minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin. Only about 1 or 2 Milliseconds.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         All-Or-None Law – Neural Impulses either Fire or don’t fire. There is no Half-Fire. A faster Rate of transmission means a stronger Stimulus.

tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">3.        The Synapse

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Synaptic Cleft – The gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         The two Membranes of the different Neurons do not touch.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Neurotransmitters – Chemicals that transmit information from one Neuron to another.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Synaptic Vesicles – The body that Neurotransmitters are transmitted across the gap in.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Pre-Synaptic Neuron – The Neuron that sends the Signal across the Gap.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Post-Synaptic Neuron – The Neuron that receives the Signal.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Receptor Site - Where the Synaptic Vesicles bind releasing the information into the new Neuron.

 

tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">4.        Receiving Signals: Postsynaptic Potentials

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Post-Synaptic Potential (PSP) – A voltage change at the receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         PSP’s are not normal">All-Or-Nothing Law; they are graded and increase/decrease the probability of a neural impulse in the receiving Cell.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Excitatory PSP – Positive Voltage shift, Increases likelihood that Postsynaptic Neuron will fire Action Potentials.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Inhibitory PSP – Negative Voltage shift, decreases likelihood that Postsynaptic Neuron will fire Action Potentials.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         The Voltage shift depends upon which Receptor Sites are activated in the Postsynaptic Neuron.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Reuptake – Process which Neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the Presynaptic Membrane.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Thousands of Neurons are connected to Thousands of Neurons.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         If there is enough Excitatory PSP’s, electrical voltage builds up to the threshold where an Action Potential can be fired. However, many Inhibitory PSP’s will cancel the effects of the Excitatory PSP’s.

 

tab-stops:list 1.0in"> "Times New Roman"">5.        Neurotransmitters and Behavior

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Acetylcholine – Transmitter between Motor Neurons and Voluntary Muscles.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Agonist – Chemical that mimics the action of a Neurotransmitter.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Antagonist – Chemical that opposes the action of a Neurotransmitter.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         The Agonist causes PSP’s, while the Antagonist Blocks PSP’s.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Monoamines – 3 Neurotransmitters: Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and Serotonin.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Dopamine – Used by Neurons that Control Voluntary Movement.

tab-stops:list 2.5in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Degeneration of Dopamine leads to Parkinson’s disease.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Serotonin – Plays a prominent role in sleep, wakefulness, and eating Behavior.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol;color:blue">·         Abnormal levels of Monoamines lead to Psychological Disorders.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Depression = Low activation of Norepinephrine and Serotonin Synapses.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Schizophrenia – Over activation of Dopamine Synapses.

tab-stops:list 2.5in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Schizophrenia affects 1% of Population, and causes Hospitalization more than any Psychological Disorder.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol;color:blue">·         Effects of Drugs like Cocaine and Amphetamines are caused by temporary increased activity at Dopamine and Norepinephrine Synapses.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         GABA – GABA and Glycine acts as inhibitory effects at all synapses.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Plays in Anxiety, Seizures, and Sleep.

tab-stops:list 1.5in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol">·         Endorphins – Internally produced chemicals that resemble Opiates in structure and effects.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol;color:green">·         Candace Pert & Solomon Snyder: Morphine exerts its effects by binding to specialized receptors in the Brain. (Endorphin Receptors) normal">

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol;mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol;color:green">·         Endorphins contribute to modulation of Pain and a variety of other things.

 

Organization of Nervous System

1. Peripheral Nervous  System & Central Nervous System
   
   1. Nerves – Bundles of Neuron Fibers (Axons) that are routed together in the Peripheral Nervous System.
2. Peripheral Nervous System – Made up of all those nerves that lie outside the Brain and Spinal Cord.
   
   1. Somatic Nervous System – Made up of Nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal Muscles and to Sensory Receptors.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Afferent Nerve Fibers – Axons that carry inward to Central nervous System from the Periphery.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                              ii.      Efferent Nerve Fibers – Axons that carry information outward from the Central Nervous System to the Periphery of the Body.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iii.      Somatic Nerves let you “feel” the world and move around in it.

2. Autonomic Nervous System – Made up of Nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Governed by the Central nervous System.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                              ii.      Controls automatic, involuntary, visceral functions.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iii.      Also controls physiological effect of Emotions.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Flight-Or-Fight Response – Walter Cannon – Organisms respond to threat Physiologically by preparing for attacking (Fight) or preparing to flee (Fight)

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iv.      Sympathetic Division – Branch of the Autonomic Nervous System that mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies. (Fight-or Flight, Adrenaline)

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                             v.      Parasympathetic Division – Branch of the Autonomic Nervous system that generally conserves Bodily Resources. (Digestion, Slowing Heart Rate, etc.)

3. Central Nervous System
   
   1. Central Nervous System – Consists of the brain and the Spinal Cord.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Protected by Sheaths called the Meninges.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Inflammation of the normal">Meninges is called the Disease Meningitis.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                              ii.      Cerebrospinal Fluid – Nourishes the Brain/Spinal Cord and provides a protective cushion.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iii.      Spinal Cord – Connects the Brain to the rest of the Body through the Peripheral Nervous System.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l9 level3 lfo3;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iv.      Brain – The Part of the Central Nervous System in the Skull. Most Important.

 

Looking Inside the Brain: Research methods

1. Electrical Recording – Electroencephalograph (EEG) - Device that monitors the electrical activity of the Brain over time by attaching Electrodes t the scalp.
2. Lesioning – Destroying pieces of the Brain and observing the effects. Mostly done on Animals.
3. Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) – Sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it.
4. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) – Technique using Magnets that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the Brain.
5. Brain-Imaging Procedures – CT. PET, and MRI scans can give scientists imaging of the Brain and the parts of it that are aroused by stimuli.

 

The Brain and Behavior

1. Hindbrain
   
   1. Hindbrain – Includes the Cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: The Medulla and the Pons.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Medulla – Controls unconscious but vital functions like breathing, blood flow, muscle tone, and reflexes.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                              ii.      Pons – Bridge of Fibers that connects the Brainstem to the Cerebellum.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iii.      Cerebellum – Controls coordination of movement, sense of equilibrium, and balance.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Cerebellum is one of the first structures depressed by Alcohol.

2. Midbrain – Segment of Brainstem between Hindbrain and Forebrain.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Concerned with Senses: Sight, Hearing.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                              ii.      Reticular Formation – In both the Hindbrain and Midbrain, contributes to muscle reflexes, breathing, pain perception, sleep, and arousal.

3. Forebrain – largest and most complex region of Brain. Includes the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Limbic System, and Cerebrum.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Thalamus – Where all sensory information (Except Smell) must pass to get to the Cerebral Cortex. Integrates all Senses.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                              ii.      Hypothalamus – Regulates Basic Biological Needs. Controls Autonomic Nervous System and Endocrine System.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Regulates the 5 F’s to Survival. {Fighting, Fleeing, Feeding, F*cking (Mating)}

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iii.      Limbic System – Loosely connected network between cerebral cortex and deeper areas. Not well defined area.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Controls Emotion, Memory, and Motivation.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iv.      Cerebrum – Largest and most complex part of Brain. Responsible for most complex mental activities.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">1.        Controls Learning, Remembering, Thinking, and Consciousness itself.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">2.        Cerebral Cortex – Wrinkled outer layer of Cerebrum.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">3.        Cerebral Hemispheres – Right and left halves of Cerebrum.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">4.        Corpus Callosum – Structure that connects the two cerebral Hemispheres.

tab-stops:list 2.0in"> "Times New Roman"">5.        The Lobes – Divisions of Hemispheres in the Brain.

tab-stops:list 2.5in"> "Times New Roman"">a.        Occipital Lobe – Primary Visual Cortex. Sense of Sight.

tab-stops:list 2.5in"> "Times New Roman"">b.       Parietal Lobe – Primary Somatosensory cortex. Sense of Touch.

tab-stops:list 2.5in"> "Times New Roman"">c.        Temporal Lobe – Primary Auditory Cortex. The Sense of Hearing.

tab-stops:list 2.5in"> "Times New Roman"">d.       Frontal Lobe – Primary Motor Cortex. Controls movements of Muscles. Largest Lobe.

4. The Plasticity of the Brain

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Experience sculpts features of the Brain structure.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                              ii.      Damage/Destruction of Brain Tissue or Sensory pathways leads to neural reorganization.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iii.      Adult brain can generate new neurons.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l1 level3 lfo5;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                            iv.      Younger Brains are more malleable than older Brains.

 

Right Brain/Left Brain: Cerebral Laterality

1. Roger Sperry Studied Split Brain in 1960’s. Won Nobel Prize for Work.
2. Split Brain Research
   
   1. Split-Brain Surgery – Corpus Callosum (Connects the two Hemispheres) is cut to reduce severity of Epileptic Seizures.
   2. Each Hemisphere’s primary connections are to the opposite side of the body.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l8 level3 lfo6;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Right Brain Controls the Left side of Body, Left brain controls Right side of Body.

3. Hemispheric Specialization of Intact brain
   
   1. Perceptual Asymmetries – Left/Right imbalances between the cerebral hemispheres in the speed of visual or auditory processing.
   2. Left Hemisphere = Verbal Processing, Language, speech, reading, writing.
   3. Right Hemisphere = Nonverbal processing, spatial, musical, and visual-recognition tasks.

 

Endocrine System

1. Endocrine System – Consists of Glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning.
2. Hormones – The chemical Messengers in the Endocrine System.
   
   1. Hormones travel throughout the body much slower than Neurotransmitters.
   2. They regulate many physical and Behavioral functions.
3. Pituitary Gland – Based in the Hypothalamus, it releases the Hormones into the body.
4. The Endocrine System is in charge of the Adrenaline effect.

 

Heredity and Behavior

1.  Behavioral Genetics – Field that studies the influence of Genetic Factors on Behavioral Traits.
2. Basic Principles of Genetics
   
   1. Chromosomes – Strands of DNA that carry Genetic Information.
   2. Zygote – Single Cell formed by the union of a Sperm and Egg.
   3. Genes – DNA segments that serve as key units in Hereditary Transmission.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l0 level3 lfo8;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Chromosomes come in 23 Pairs, 46 Total.

4. Homozygous – Two genes in a specific Pair are the Same.
5. Heterozygous – Two genes on a specific pair are Different.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l0 level3 lfo8;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Dominant Gene – Gene that is Expressed when paired Genes are different.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l0 level3 lfo8;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                              ii.      Recessive Gene – Gene that is Masked when paired Genes are different.

6. Genotype – Persons Genetic Makeup.
7. Phenotype – Ways in which a Genotype is shown in Observable Characteristics.
8. Polygenic Traits – Characteristics that are influenced by more than 1 Pair of Genes.
2. Heredity Research Methods
   
   1. Family Studies – Researchers compare Blood relatives to see how much they are similar in a trait.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l0 level3 lfo8;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      More similarity will be found among family members who share more genes. (E.g. Siblings.)

2. Twin Studies – Researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of Identical and Fraternal Twins on a specific trait.
3. Identical Twins – Emerge from one Zygote that splits for unknown reasons.
4. Fraternal Twins – Emerge from two eggs being simultaneously fertilized by different sperm cells.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l0 level3 lfo8;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Identical Twins are genetically 100% Same.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l0 level3 lfo8;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                              ii.      Fraternal Twins are genetically 50% Same.

5. Adoption Studies – Assess Hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both Biological and Adoptive parents.
3. Genetic Mapping – Process of determining the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes.
4. Interplay of Heredity and Environment
   
   1. Both Heredity and Environment effect Behavior.

 

Evolutionary Bases of Behavior

1. Charles Darwin
   
   1. Fitness – The reproductive success of an individual organism in comparison to population.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo9;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      “Survival of the Fittest”

2. Natural Selection – Heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely to be passed on to latter generations.

-9.0pt;mso-list:l2 level3 lfo9;tab-stops:list 1.5in">                                                               i.      Natural selection works on populations, not individual organisms.

 

Refinements to Evolution

2. Theodore Dobzhansky – By using the Hereditary work of Gregor Mendel, synthesized Evolution into a widely accepted theory on 1950’s.
3. Adaptation – Inherited characteristic that increased in a population through Natural Selection, because it solved a problem of survival or Reproduction when it emerged.
4. Inclusive Fitness – Individuals own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on the reproductive success of others.
   
   1. The more closely genetically related one is, the more likely to perform Self-Sacrifice.

 

Behavior as an Adaptive Trait

• Behavior Adapts over Generations to help avoid Predators and to Reproduce.