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| 140224525 | LEAGUE OF THE THREE EMPERORS/DREIKAISERBUND | 1872: Bismarck negotiated this in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War in order to isolate France and maintain European peace and security. It was between Germany's Emperor William I, Austria's Emperor Francis Joseph, and Russia's Tsar Alexander II. They pledged to cooperate in efforts to maintain peace and the status quo. However, after the Russo-Turkish War and the Congress of Berlin(1878) there was much tension between Austria and Russia and the strength of the League seemed doubtful. So... | 0 | |
| 140224526 | DUAL ALLIANCE OF 1879 | 1879: Between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Manipulated by Bismarck to isolate France. A SECRET defensive military alliance which provided for mutual aid if either of the two were attacked by Russia. | 1 | |
| 140224527 | TRIPLE ALLIANCE | Italy added to the (SECRET) Dual Alliance in 1882. Italy was upset at France for taking Tunisia. Arrangement was that if any member of the alliance was in a war with two or more adversaries, allies should come to its aid. It would last until 1914. France now more isolated than ever. | 2 | |
| 140224528 | REINSURANCE TREATY | 1887: Bismarck negotiated this with Russia since growing tensions in Balkans made renewal of Dreikaiserbund impossible. Treaty provide for benevolent neutrality in case either partner became involved in war unless Germany attacked France or Russia attacked Austria. Germany had no intention of attacking France. The provision that Germany would not be obliged to observe benevolent neutrality in the event of a Russian attack on Austria made the terms of the Reinsurance compatible with Germany's obligations under the Dual Alliance. After Bismarck's fall from power, William II let this treaty lapse. | 3 | |
| 140224529 | FRANCO-RUSSIAN ALLIANCE | 1894: France, feeling isolated and opposed by Germany, A-H(Austria-Hungary) and Italy - sought an alliance with the newly single Russia. Seemed like odd bed-fellows since France politically radical and Russia very reactionary. Nonetheless, in foreign policy they had mutual concerns. French capital was invested in Russia and Czar even went so far as to remove his hat when the Marsaillaise was played. | 4 | |
| 140224530 | ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE | 1902: This was Britain's alliance with Japan against Russia. Slowly, cautiously, Brit was ending its isolationism which had seemed especially bothersome in wake of Fashoda Crisis and Boer War. Began to be concerned about its position in the naval race. Saw Russia as threat to its postition in the Near, Middle(Persia) and Far (China) East. Japan, which was imperializing in Korea and China was also in competition with Russian expansionism. | 5 | |
| 140224531 | ENTENTE CORDIALE | 1904. Britain and France agree to forget Fashoda and accumulated bad feeling of the last 25 years. France recognized Brit occupation of Egypt. Brit recognized French penetration of Morocco. Agreed to support each other against third parties but NO SPECIFIC ALLIANCE. Translated means - friendly understanding. France tried to reconcile its new friend with Russia. | 6 | |
| 140224532 | ANGLO-RUSSIAN CONVENTION | 1907: These long-time adversaries settled differences over Persia. Brits recognized Russian sphere of influence in Northern Persia and Russians recognized Brit sphere in Southern Persia. | 7 | |
| 140224533 | TANGIER INCIDENT(FIRST MOROCCAN CRISIS) | 1905: In this incident William II of Germany was testing the strength of the Entente Cordiale. He visited Morocco where he gave a speech in Tangier supporting Moroccan independence. Since the French had long since penetrated Morocco and established police power, gained concessions and arranged loans - this was more than an indirect challenge. Diplomats recognised what William was up to. The Germans demanded a conference... | 8 | |
| 140224534 | THE ALGECIRAS CONFERENCE | 1906: The major powers attended (including the U.S.) to discuss the status of Morocco and in conclusion supported French claims. Only Austria voted with Germany against French claims. Thus Germany had created an incident and been rebuffed. Britain had supported its partner in the Entente Cordiale and was moving further toward Russia and the Triple Entente which was made the following year. | 9 | |
| 140224535 | AGADIR CRISIS (SECOND MOROCCAN CRISIS), 1911 | Germany sent a warship, The Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir, ostensibly to protect German interests. Tensions were eased when the French agreed to cede part of the French Congo to Germany in return for German recognition of the French position in Morocco. Germany's aggressive diplomacy had again caused alarm and David Lloyd George(Liberal Chancellor of the Exchequer) made an important speech in Parliament in which he warned of the German menace. French moved bulk of navy to Mediterranean and Brit focused forces in the North Sea - taking on responsibility of protecting French north coast. Thus Entente moving more towards and Alliance. | 10 | |
| 140224536 | BUCHLAU CONFERENCE | 1908: Russian and Austrian foreign ministers (Isvolsky and Aehrenthal) came to a secret agreement. Both concerned by Young Turks and South Slavs movements. Decided to call international conference at which Russia would favor Austrian annexation of Bosnia and, in return, Austria was supposed to support opening of the Straits of Dardanelles to Russian warships. | 11 | |
| 140224537 | ANNEXATION OF BOSNIA | Austria did this WITHOUT even waiting for the conference or granting Russia its agreed upon reward. This action infuriated the Serbs who wanted Bosnia for themselves(to be part of a greater Serbia). Meanwhile, Bulgarians and Cretans broke from the decaying Ottoman Empire. Isvolsky could not get support for his claim from his partners in the Triple Entente. This secret deal was kept secret in Russia where the government was already facing criticism over foreign policy failures. | 12 | |
| 140224538 | FIRST BALKAN WAR, 1912 | Italy declared war on Turkey for Tripoli and the Dodecanese Islands - easy victory encouraged Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece and Montenegro to take opportunity, with Russian patronage, of forming Balkan League and pressing their demands on Turkey. Turkey was defeated and at the TREATY OF LONDON, 1913, lost all its territory in Europe except for area along Straits. Over final disposition of territory, Austria and Russia took opposing views. Russia supported Serbs desire for ports on Adriatic. Austria wanted new state, Albania, created on Adriatic effectively blocking Serbian expansionism. International conference supported Austrian view. Once again Serbians thwarted and Russians losing face. | 13 | |
| 140224539 | SECOND BALKAN WAR | 1913: Serbia, Greece, Romania AND TURKEY(!) vs. Bulgaria. The Serbs resented lack of gain in First Balkan War and felt Bulgarian received too much from settlement. Bulgarians defeated in 1913 conflict and ceded territory to Romania while Serbia and Greece gained most of Macedonia. ALTHOUGH THESE CRISES (Balkan wars) DID NOT LEAD TO GENERAL WAR - THEY WERE SERIOUS. TENSIONS WERE HIGH. RUSSIA'S AMBITIONS IN THE BALKANS AND THE TURKISH STRAITS HAD BEEN FRUSTRATED. RUSSIANS FELT COMPELLED TO SUPPORT SERBIA MORE FIRMLY IN THE FUTURE AND THE GERMANS BELIEVED IT WAS IMPORTANT TO BACK AUSTRIA. | 14 | |
| 140224540 | INDEPENDENCE OF ALBANIA | New State created as result of Balkan Wars. It was a Muslim, mountainous, wild area adjacent to Adriatic. It was by agreement of the Great Powers that it was created as an independent state. Its existence confirmed success of Austria's policy of keeping Serbia from the sea. It aroused outcries in Serbia and Russia. Russia backed down but Serbian nationalism and expansionism continued to fester. | 15 | |
| 140224541 | SARAJEVO CRISIS, JUNE 28, 1914 | In capital of Austrian province of Bosnia, a South Slav/Serbian nationalist, GAVRILO PRINCIP, assassinated the ARCHDUKE FRANCIS FERDINAND, heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife Sophie. Princip was sponsored by the BLACK HAND, and Serbian nationalist/terrorist group. Although Serbian Govt was not directly involved, some Serbian officials were aware of plot and had done nothing to avert it. Led to series of events which ended in WW I... | 16 | |
| 140224542 | THE GERMAN "BLANK CHECK" | Germany indicated its readiness to support Austria fully in its pressing of an ultimatum on Serbia. This was much like issuing a blank check - Austria was free to write in the amount. Knowing that it had German support, Austria delivered a harsh ultimatum including the untenable stipulation that Austria send investigators to Serbia to find and punish the perpetrators of this heinous assassination. Serbia felt Russia would support them in refusing this one condition. Austria knew it had German support (this). Austria DECLARED WAR ON SERBIA, JULY 28, 1914. RUSSIA MOBILIZED ITS TROOPS. GERMANY DEMANDED AN END TO RUSSIAN MOBILIZATION. RUSSIANS REFUSED. GERMANS DECLARED WAR ON RUSSIA, AUGUST 1ST. GERMANS DECLARED WAR ON FRANCE, AUGUST 3RD - BECAUSE OF Schlieffen Plan. | 17 | |
| 140224543 | SCHLIEFFEN PLAN | Pre-existing German military plan for dealing with just such a situation. CENTRAL POWERS: Germany and its allies were known as the Central Powers in WW I. The Central Powers then were: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey(1914) and Bulgaria(1915). These were opposed by ... | 18 | |
| 140224544 | ALLIED POWERS | Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, & Belgium + 25 others(including many colonies. Japan also joined in 1914 in hopes of acquiring German territory in Pacific once Germany defeated. Italy joined allied powers in 1915 on promised of acquiring Italia Irredenta. U.S. finally joined in 1917. | 19 | |
| 140224545 | MOLTKE | German military leader. Related to General who built up German army under Bismarck. Had to withdraw German forces from Western Front to fight Russians on Eastern Front. Two front war a challenge. Overextended lines of communication. | 20 | |
| 140224546 | JOFFRE | French commander. Regrouped forces on the Western Front with support from the British. Ordered counterattack to the Schlieffen Plan. This resulted in the Battle of the Marne. | 21 | |
| 140224547 | BATTLE OF THE MARNE | Sept. 5-12, 1914. V. close to Paris. Germans eventually retreated then repeated attempts to outflank the French lines led to extension of front all the way to the English Channel. Essentially, the Western Front would extend from the sea to the Vosges Mts. Digging-in by both sides along this front led establishment of TRENCH WARFARE - a major characteristic of the fighting on the WESTERN FRONT. | 22 | |
| 140224548 | BATTLE OF TANNENBERG | 1914: German victories in the East were accomplished early in the war against Russia. At this and at Masurian Lakes - big German victories. Captured 225,000 Russians. BUT, in the long run this was small consolation because the front in West became immobile as a result and led to the TRENCH WARFARE that would be one of the tragic hallmarks of WW I. | 23 | |
| 140224549 | DARDANELLES CAMPAIGN | At suggestion of a young Winston Churchill - first lord of the Admiralty - this campaign was launched in 1915 to open the Dardanelle Straits up to allied powers and attack Constantinope(Turks on Central Powers' side). Thus it was hoped to be able to support and supply the Russian through the Black Sea. Errors in planning led to failure of the this campaign and allied forces withdrew in 1916. ALSO KNOWN AS THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN. Many Australian and New Zealand troops fought in this campaign. | 24 | |
| 140224550 | BATTLE OF VERDUN | Feb. of 1916, German massed armies and artillery in assault on French stronghold of Verdun. Lasted 6months. French lost 540,000, Germans lost 430,000. Holding off German attack was crucial to allies in stabilizing the front and preventing Paris from falling. | 25 | |
| 140224551 | "they shall not pass" | Supposedly said by Marshal Petain, French commander of the Fort of Verdun concerning the German attack. Indeed, French resistance here was critical. | 26 | |
| 140224552 | BATTLE OF THE SOMME | In July of 1916, the French and British began this offensive on Somme River (after Verdun). 30 mile front. Allies achieved advance of only 7miles. Battle ended in November of 1916. Brit casualties - 400,000; French - 200,000; German -650,000. (Brits lost 60,000 on first day.) Tanks used for first time by Brits. But no decisive breakthrough. | 27 | |
| 140224553 | SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA | Issue of "Freedom of the Seas" raised by this. Also the issue of contraband. Germans declared the seas around Britain to be a war zone. A Cunard liner, the Lusitania from N.Y. to England was torpedoed by a U-Boat off coast of Ireland in May of 1915. 1,200 drowned including 118 Americans. Was carrying munitions in hold and there had been a warning issued to passengers in N.Y. President Woodrow Wilson issued a stern warning that this act was "deliberately unfriendly." Germans toned down their U-Boat campaign. However, U.S. still not entering the war. Not until Germans began campaign again in 1917 did U.S. get involved. | 28 | |
| 140224554 | BATTLE OF JUTLAND | Only real naval battle of the war. May 1916. German Baltic fleet met Brits of coast of Denmark. Germans inflicted heavy Brit losses but failed to break Brit blockade. German fleet retreated to Baltic and stayed there. Brit naval supremacy confirmed but Brits unable to defeat German fleet completely in order to service Russia through the Baltic. | 29 | |
| 140224555 | SECRET TREATY OF LONDON | 1915: Between allies and Italy. Brought Italy into war on allies' side in exchange for promises of Italia irredenta(Trentino, Istria, Tyrol & Trieste + Dalmatian Islands and promises of Libya and Somaliland(to satisfy territorial expansionism). Thus a new front was opened up in WW I - i.e. the Austro-Hungarian Front in May of 1915. Also in this treaty was an agreement to give Constantinople to Russia - essentially a big "carve up" planned for post-war period. | 30 | |
| 140224556 | SIR ROGER CASEMENT | Irish Nationalist who landed in Ireland from a German U-Boat and precipitated the Easter Rebellion of 1916. Rebellion put down by the British. This was an example of German fostering discontent with allies domestic spheres. They practised similar tactic in the Ukraine, Poland and amongst the Flems in Belgium. | 31 | |
| 140224557 | ZIMMERMAN TELEGRAM | German foreign secretary sent this to German minister in Mexico in 1916. In it he encouraged war between Mexico and the U.S. Said to encourage Mexicans to reclaim their lost territories - Texas, New Mexico and Arixona. Telegram was intercepted by the Brits and given to U.S.. Printed in U.S. Papers - added to increasingly negative attitude toward the central powers. One of several events under consideration when U.S. finally entered the war in 1917. | 32 | |
| 140224558 | BALFOUR NOTE OF 1917 | This declaration by the British govt promised the Zionist movement that it would help establish a Jewish homeland in the Palestine. This promise was made despite concomitant support for Arab nationalism in order to get Arab assistance against Turkey. After WWI Brit did not live up to its promise regarding a Jewish homeland. This not realized until after WW II when Brit turned the whole issue over the U.N. which partitioned Palestine between Arabs and Jews who created the state of Israel. | 33 | |
| 140224559 | ARMENIAN DEPORTATIONS | Armenian Christians living in the Anatolian peninsular (part of Ottoman Empire) near Russia wanted independence. There had been massacres of Armenians by Turks as recently as 1894. In 1915 the Turkish govt deported Armenians from what was then a war zone since they thought they might be sympathetic to the Russians. They were supposed to be resettled in Syria and Palestine but countless numbers in fact perished/were massacred. Armenians then became one the world's scattered peoples. | 34 | |
| 140224560 | TWENTY-ONE DEMANDS | Made in 1915 by Japan to China. Secret ultimatum by which Japan increased its influence. Japan then made Manchuria and China's north into an exclusive Japanese protectorate. | 35 | |
| 140224561 | BETHMAN-HOLLWEG | Chancellor of Germany in WW I until 1917. Made plans for post-war world. Germany to have big influence. Empire to expand in Europe and Central AFrica. Great expansionist plans. | 36 | |
| 140224562 | AMERICAN DECLARATION OF WAR | April 1917: After Germans began unrestricted submarine warfare, sinking British liner Laconia without warning. Zimmeraman telegram been revealed in March. HOWEVER, it would be a full year before the American troops present in large numbers in Europe. In the meantime... | 37 | |
| 140224563 | TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK | Between Russians and Germans. Russian withdrawal from WW I since revolution on-going. National independence of peoples on Russia's western border - Poles, Ukrainians, Bessarabians, Estonians, Latvians, Finns(thus size of Russia to shrink). Bolsheviks did not want to sign but needed to end war and consolidate revolution at home. Signed Treaty in March of 1918. Marked big success for Germany. Dominated Eastern Europe, access to Ukrainian bread basket and no longer fighting 2 front war. HINDENBURG & LUDENDORFF: Leading Generals of German High Command. Been preparing since 1916 for a massive offensive on Western Front. When Brest-Litovsk released forces to concentrate in West they began hoping to accomplish task before American forces arrived. Began gas attacks and by May 1918 were on River Marne, 37miles from Paris. | 38 | |
| 140224564 | NIVELLE | French general. Believed that allies should be able to make breakthrough on the Western Front. Launched an offensive in 1917 that was tragically unsuccessful if not suicidal. Led to mutinous situations throughout French forces. | 39 | |
| 140224565 | PETAIN | Replaced Nivelle and restored discipline in the French army. Waiting for the Americans and tanks to arrive. British resumed a major part of the burden in maintaining the Front. | 40 | |
| 140224566 | PASSCHENDAELE | A dismal battle which lasted for 3 months, late in 1917. Brits were major fighting force. Advanced only 5 miles near Ypres at cost of 1/2 million men. Also used tanks more intensively in this battle - some 380 in operation. | 41 | |
| 140224567 | CAPORETTO | In 1917 the Austro-Hungarians and Germans defeated the Italians at this battle on the A-H front betw Austria and Italy. The Central Powers streamed into Italy demonstrating weakness of Italian forces. Brit and French troops rushed in to hold the line. Stalemate resulted, then allies waiting - holding out for arrival of fresh American troops. | 42 | |
| 140224568 | FOCH | French General led unity of Allied Command in 1918. Even General (Blackjack) Pershing - leader of the American forces - was subordinate to Foch. Commanded counteroffensive against Germans on the R. Marne. Americans had proven themselves effective at Chateau Thierry so Foch employed them in the Argonne Offensive. Americans definitely tipped the balance in the war though they were only in combat 4 months and losses small compared to other allies. | 43 | |
| 140224569 | LLOYD GEORGE | Was the Brit PM and representative at Paris Peace Conference. Was in fact more concerned with domestic reforms and postwar recovery than complexities of peace process. Hoped to restore a continental balance of power so that Britain could devote its attention to matters domestic and imperial. One of Big Four and a representative of a democratic political system. | 44 | |
| 140224570 | CLEMENCEAU | Aged patriot and President of France. Pro-nationalist. Representative for France at Paris Peace Conference. Determined to gain security for France against possible resurgence of German power. Also demanded substantial reparations from Germany to pay for reconstruction of war-ravaged northern France. One of Big Four and also representing a democratic system. | 45 | |
| 140224571 | ORLANDO | Premier of Italy and representing his country at Paris Peace Conference. Primary objective was to gain as much territory as possible for Italy. One of Big Four and also representing a democratic system. | 46 | |
| 140224572 | FOURTEEN POINTS | First stated in January of 1918 while war still on-going. Made by WOODROW WILSON, U.S. PRESIDENT WHO WOULD GO ON TO REPRESENT U.S. AT PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE IN 1919. Included in the 14pts were End to secret treaties and diplomacy, freedom of seas, remove trade barriers, reduce armaments, colonial readjustments, evacuation of occupied territories, self-determination of nationalities in German, A-H and Ottoman Empires, re-drawing boundaries along national lines, international political organization to prevent war (A LEAGUE OF NATIONS) The principles embedded in this proposal stood for fruition of democratic, liberal, progressive, nationalistic movements and ideals of Enlightenment and French Revolution and those of 1848. HOWEVER IT WAS ONLY WILSON'S VISION AND TURNED OUT TO PUT U.S. ON A COLLISION COURSE WITH THE EUROPEAN ALLIES AT THE PEACE CONFERENCE. | 47 | |
| 140224573 | ANGLO-FRENCH-AMERICAN TREATY | To give the Fench a sense of security against the Germans, this was established saying that if France was again attacked by Germany, Britain and the U.S. would join them immediately. However, the U.S. Senate would not ratify this treaty. | 48 | |
| 140224574 | TREATY OF VERSAILLES | WAS COMPLETED IN 3 MONTHS AND CONTAINED Demilitarization of the Rhineland, Administration of the Saar, Alsace-Lorraine, Sudeten Germany, "Mandates", Reparations, War Guilt Clause, Scuttling of the fleet, League of Nations covenant | 49 | |
| 140224575 | DEMILITARIZATION OF THE RHINELAND | At Versailles, German fortifications and troops were banned from a wide belt in the Rhineland. Allied troops would occupy the Rhineland for 15 years to assure German compliance with the treaty. | 50 | |
| 140224576 | ADMINISTRATION OF THE SAAR | At Versailles, France obtained control over these coalmines for 15 years. A League commission would administer this territory and in 1933 a plebiscite would be held. | 51 | |
| 140224577 | ALSACE-LORRAINE | Went to France by treaty of Versailles. | 52 | |
| 140224578 | SUDETEN GERMANY | Germans living in Bohemia(Czechoslovakia) felt desire to be annexed to the new Republic of Germany. But they were unorganized and allies were unwilling to let Germany be any bigger than in 1914. But now A-H no longer controlling Sudetan Germans. They became Sudetan Germans - a disgruntled minority in the new Czechoslovakia. | 53 | |
| 140224579 | "MANDATES" | German colonies would go to League of Nations which would organize them as these to the allies. France and GB divided African colonies, Union of S. Africa got German SW Africa, Japan got Pacific Islands north of the equator and Australia and New Zealand got those south of the equator. Japan claimed German concessions in China. China objected to this but was ignored. | 54 | |
| 140224580 | REPARATIONS | French, British and Belgians wanted payment for damages. Wilson thought the amount was too large. Emotional issue. No figure set in treaty. Commission was to set first payment. German merchant fleet was to be surrendered, coal delivered and German-owned property abroad was to be given up. Wilson commented openly that he did not see how the types of bills being presented by the allies could ever be paid. | 55 | |
| 140224581 | WAR GUILT CLAUSE | Article 231 of the Versailles Peace Treaty stated that German explicitly "accepted the responsibility" for the loss and damage resulting from the "aggression of Germany and her allies." This then used to justify the reparations. Germans did not feel good about this being accepted by the German delegation at Versailles. German honor was impugned. Gave the agitators in Germany a ready opening. | 56 | |
| 140224582 | SCUTTLING OF THE FLEET | Allies to take over the German Fleet but Germans did this to it first at Scapa Flow. German army also to be limited to 100,000 but this stipulation had opposite effect since they simply became more professionalized with an even stronger political officer class. | 57 | |
| 140224583 | LEAGUE OF NATIONS COVENANT | Part of Versailles Treaty. Great step forward from international anarchy of 1914. U.S. Never Joined - Senate Wouldn't Ratify Despite Best Efforts of Woodrow Wilson. Germany did not join until 1926. Russia joined in 1934. League would only be as powerful as powers would allow it to be . Started operations in 1920 at HQ in Geneva, Switzerland. | 58 | |
| 140332297 | TRIPLE ENTENTE | 1907-By this time Britain, France and Russia acting together and facing older Triple Alliance. Entente not as formal as Alliance because the Brits refused to make military committments. | 59 | |
| 140433102 | HINDENBURG & LUDENDORFF | Leading Generals of German High Command. Been preparing since 1916 for a massive offensive on Western Front. When Brest-Litovsk released forces to concentrate in West they began hoping to accomplish task before American forces arrived. Began gas attacks and by May 1918 were on River Marne, 37miles from Paris | 60 |
