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| 107591844 | Hereditary Subjugation | (i.e. in Prussia) where peasants were bound to their lords and the land from one generation to the next. THIS IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT SHOWED THE MISERABLE FATE AND SUFFERING OF EASTERN EUROPEAN PEASANTS DURING THE MID-17TH CENTURY | 0 | |
| 107591845 | Protestant Union | Formed in 1608 by Lutheran Princes, who feared that the principles drawn up at the Peace of Augsburg would be undermined by Catholic and Calvinist gains. | 1 | |
| 107591846 | Catholic League | Formed in 1609 as a Catholic counter to the Protestant Union | 2 | |
| 107591847 | Ferdinand of Styria | Elected king of Bohemia; He's a Hapsburg who later will become H.R.E; Sends two Catholic representatives to the "Meeting of the Estates", who are thrown out of a window; Shortly after becoming H.R.E (titled as _____ II), he wiped out Protestantism in Bohemia through forcible conversions and Jesuit missionary work. HE IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE WAS SUCCESSFUL IN CATHOLICIZING BOHEMIA THROUGH FORCIBLE CONVERSIAN, KILLING, OR TAKING AWAY LAND. | 3 | |
| 107591848 | Defenestration of Prague | where the two Catholic officials, sent by Ferdinand of Styria, were thrown from the window of a tower...Only to land in a pile of manure. THIS IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE CATHOLICS AND PROTESTANTS BEGAN REVOLTING, LEADING TO THE 30 YEARS WAR | 4 | |
| 107591849 | Fredrick | Protestant king chosen by the Bohemian nobles after the Defenestration of Prague; Loses the "Battle of White Mountain" to Ferdinand of Styria, after which Bohemia becomes completely Catholic. | 5 | |
| 107591850 | Albert of Wollenstein | Hapsburg mercenary general who leads the Hapsburgs to many decisive victories in the Danish Phase of the 30 Years War. After the Danes were defeated, Ferdinand was able to issue the Edict of Restitution. | 6 | |
| 107591851 | Edict of Restitution | Issued by Ferdinand of Styria(Ferdinand II); Said that all Catholic properties lost to Protestantism since 1552 were to be restored, and only Catholics and Lutherans were allowed to practice their faiths. THIS IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT REPRESENTED THE PEAK OF HABSBURG POWER. | 7 | |
| 107591852 | Gustavus Adolphus | Swedish king; Devout Lutheran; Great general; Great administrator; Crushed the Hapsburg armies in 1631 and 1632, but in 1632 at the battle of Lutzen, he was fatally wounded. After his death, the Swedes start to lose momentum. HE IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS INVOLVEMENT IN THE WAR PROVED DECISIVE FOR THE FUTURE OF PROTESTANTISM IN GERMANY. | 8 | |
| 107591853 | Peace of Westphalia | Ended the 30 years war in 1648. THIS IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE THE GERMAN PRINCES GOT SOVEREIGNTY BECAUSE THE EMPIRE WAS WEAKENED, WHICH ALLOWED FRANCE TO GAIN POWER. ALSO, CALVINISM, CATHOLICISM, AND LUTHERANISM BECAME LEGAL, THE NETHERLANDS GAINED INDEPENDANCE, THE PAPACY WAS FORCED OUT OF CENTRAL EUROPEAN AFFAIRS, AND SWEDEN BECAME A MAJOR POWER BECAUSE THEY GOT THE BALTIC GERMAN TERRITORIES. | 9 | |
| 107591854 | Bohemian Estates | the representative body of the different estates, or legal orders. | 10 | |
| 107591855 | Battle of Mohacs | Fought in 1526; after this, the kingdom of Hungary was divided between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT DIVIDED THE KINGDOM OF HUNGARY BETWEEN THE HABSBURGS AND OTTOMAN TURKS. | 11 | |
| 107591856 | Pragmatic Sanction | Proclaimed by Charles VI in 1713, and stated that Habsburg possessions were never to be divided, even if it meant allowing a woman to take the thrown—thus ensuring the rise to power of his daughter, Maria Theresa. THIS IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT SHOWED WEAKNESS IN THE HABSBURG EMPIRE'S HOPED ABSOLUTISM. | 12 | |
| 107591857 | Hohenzollern | The family, arguable, most associated with dominance in Prussia; This family had very unimaginative names for their children. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR GERMAN UNIFICATION. | 13 | |
| 107591858 | Elector of Brandenburg | had the right to help choose the Holy Roman Emperor, which bestowed prestige, but this official had no military strength of his own. | 14 | |
| 107591859 | Fredrick William the Great Elector | This young elector was able to make huge steps forward in terms of royal absolutism; in order to pay for a permanent standing army, he was able to force the estates to accept the introduction of permanent taxation without consent, after which, the power of the estates drastically declined; during his rule, the state's revenue tripled, and the army's number increased ten-fold. HE IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE MADE HUGE STEPS TOWARDS PRUSSIAN ABSOLUTISM. | 15 | |
| 107591860 | Junkers | Prussian aristocracy | 16 | |
| 107591861 | Fredrick I | son of Fredrick William the Great Elector; first of the Hohenzollerns to receive the title of king. He was granted this as reward for aiding the H.R.E. in the War of Spanish Succession; He also designed and built a HUGE palace, modeled after Versailles. He did this to impose himself over the Junkers. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE TURNS THE HOHENZOLLERNS INTO A LINE OF KINGS. | 17 | |
| 107591862 | Fredrick William I | "The Soldier's King"; the most talented reformer from the Hohenzollern family; Under his rule, Prussia built the best army in Europe for its size and transformed into a model military state; He truly established Prussian absolutism and gave it its unique character. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE ESTABLISHED TRUE ABSOLUTISM IN PRUSSIA AND ITS TERRITORIES. | 18 | |
| 107591863 | Fredrick II The Great | Unlike his father, Fredrick William I, he was a flautist and poet—who refused to be "toughened" by his militaristic father; However he was pretty stubborn about his hobbies and way of life—refusing to back down to his father; He is liked by many believers of the enlightenment, however one of his primary goals was to expand his state—by means of war. This, the enlightenment thinkers did not like; He was particularly interested in gaining the territory of Silesia, so he attacked Maria Theresa of Austria, and eventually gained Silesia with the help of the Bourbons | 19 | |
| 107591864 | Mongol Yoke | the two hundred year period in which the Mongols ruled the Eastern Slavs; At this time, they built their capital at Saray on the lower Volga, and forced rival Slavic princes to submit to their rule and to give them tribute and slaves; If conquered people rebelled, ruthless violence would be imposed to regain control over those rebelling; During this time, the _______ Khan was acknowledged by all the Eastern Slavs as the supreme ruler. | 20 | |
| 107591865 | Great Prince | this official would oversee that the Slavic princes were paying proper tribute to the Mongols during the period of the Mongol Yoke. | 21 | |
| 107591866 | Alexander Nevsky | Beginning with him, the princes of Moscow became very efficient in serving the Mongols and collecting their taxes; He was a famous warrior prince and won many incredibly victories—I.e, his victory over the Teutonic Knights, where the Knights fell through the icy lake on which the battle was fought. | 22 | |
| 107591867 | Ivan I | became the first Great Prince of Moscow; He gained this title by aiding the Mongols in their attacks against the Princes who had refused to pay proper tribute; Most importantly, he made Moscow the center of Orthodox Christianity. | 23 | |
| 107591868 | Dimitri | Great warrior who had an incredible amount of charisma; He was the first of the Muscovite rulers to refuse to pay tribute to the Mongols. So, after he did this, the Mongols attacked. The Battle of Kulikovo ensued, and at the end, he was thought to be dead until he was found under a pile of corpses. Two years later though, the Mongols did manage to catch him off guard and defeat him (although he was kept as great prince), but the idea of Mongol invincibility was now gone. | 24 | |
| 107591869 | Ivan III "The Great" | Also stopped paying tribute to the Mongol Khan, after which the Mongols attack again. All of this is very anti-climactic because the Mongols basically flee before a decisive battle could be fought. This was the end of the Mongol Yoke; He drastically increases the territories controlled by Moscow; He is also the first ruler to take the title of "Tsar." This term was a shortened version of "Caesar", which he claimed because he marries the daughter of the last Byzantine emperor; When he gains all the new lands, he creates a Service Nobility, who were nobles loyal to him who were put in charge of these lands. He could control the Service Nobility because they owed him—he gave them land and titles; He was offered the position of king several times, but he refuses. Instead he built several great fortified palaces and churches in Moscow—i.e. the Kremlin. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE DEVELOPS RUSSIA AS A MAJOR POWER AND IS THE FATHER OF RUSSIAN ABSOLUTISM. | 25 | |
| 107591870 | Boyars | the highest ranking Russian nobility | 26 | |
| 107591871 | Cossacks | Essentially peasant warriors who governed themselves; Free groups and outlaw armies who maintained a precarious independence. | 27 | |
| 107591872 | Ivan IV The Terrible | As a child, when the Boyars weren't sucking up to him in public, these same Boyars basically kicked him around...He was brutalized as a child. At the age of 16, he decides to have a palace coup, and so he kills some of his worst tormentors, and crowns himself tsar in a public spectacle; marries Anastasia of Romanov, who was really good for him, as well as to him. During these good years of their marriage, he assembled an elected advisory to help him make reforms. So, during these "Good Years", he made a lot of reforms to advance the state absolutism, as well as creating the Streltzy, which were the first standing army units. He also signed a trade agreement with England, and thus helps create the first joint stock company in history. During these years, he also had several successful military victories of the Mongol khanates; But in 1560, Anastasia dies...Thus, begins the "Bad Years". Ivan proceeds to go insane. He soon turns against the Boyars, who were the officers of his own army. He then says he is no longer tsar, and leaves Moscow. He later returns, looking terrible, and creates a secret police, states that he owns everything, and kills his own son. In 1584, he dies. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE MAKES RUSSIA AN ABSOLUTIST STATE. | 28 | |
| 107591873 | Theodore | Son of Ivan the Terrible; Very weak, doesn't have any children; Marries the sister of Boris Godunov, and things go pretty smoothly in the marriage. | 29 | |
| 107591874 | Boris Godunov | Succeeds Theodore as tsar...This made sense, since he had basically been running the country for a while; To his misfortune, during the first three years of his rule, the crops fail miserably. With crops failing three years in a row, Russia was in a state of complete catastrophe. Russians started to think that God was made at the because ______________________ wasn't the true tsar, and Dimitri is! The obvious problem with this being that Dimitri is dead... | 30 | |
| 107591875 | False Dimitri 1 | (thought he really was dimitri) Even though he looked nothing like the real Dimitri, Boris Godunov was unable to find and defeat him because the peasants rallied around and protected him. In 1605, Boris drops dead, ______________ goes to Moscow and is crowned Tsar; He later marries a pole, starts dressing in polish attire, etc, which the Russians HATE, because the HATE the polish. So they decide to kill him and fire him in a cannon towards Poland. | 31 | |
| 107591876 | Basil Shuisky | becomes Tsar, and represented the Boyars. However, the Boyars were too weak to control the country effectively, so what ends up occurring is the "Social Phase" of the time of troubles, in which armies and peasants alike, start rebelling. | 32 | |
| 107591877 | False Dimitri 2 | A convict who escaped punishment(knew he wasn't really dimitri), becomes known as the "Felon of Tushino." The real Dimitri's mom, and False Dimitri 1's wife say that he is the real Dimitri! However, Basil Shuisky appeals to the Swedes and the Swede's defeat the "Felon's" army, and he is killed | 33 | |
| 107591878 | Michael of Romanov | Selected as Tsar because he was the nephew of the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, as well as his youth...Him being young was important because it meant that he had no previous political affiliation—he was a political "blank slate". SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE REINTRODUCED TSARIST ABSOLUTISM. | 34 | |
| 107591879 | Stenka Razin | Cossack leader of many peasant rebellions—these, however, are crushed. | 35 | |
| 107591880 | Nikon | Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church who becomes concerned that many practices of the church were being carried out incorrectly. Most of these concerns involved the physical practices of worship. So, he told the peasant they needed to change their methods of physical worship. To the peasants, this was unthinkable, and many of the "Old Believers" would rather burn to death than change their methods of worship. | 36 | |
| 107591881 | Peter the Great | Becomes tsar in his 20's; hugely tall guy—literally a giant; he couldn't sit still, didn't like to read, but had an insatiable curiosity about things. He could make his own shoes, build ships, and even do dentistry; He also loved to party, particularly in the foreign quarter of Moscow where the Westerners were. He became fascinated with Westerners and Western culture; Required nobles to shave their heavy beards and wear western clothing; He required them to attend parties where young men and women would mix together and freely choose their own spouses; He created St. Petersburg, and made it his capital. He wanted his capital to be uniform and well designed, as well as have street lighting, set architectural regulations, etc etc. As well as this, the nobles were to live in a particular section of the city. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE CARRIED OUT A POLICY OF MODERNIZATION AND EXPANSION AND TURNED RUSSIA INTO AN EMPIRE. | 37 | |
| 107591882 | Charles XII | Boy king of Sweden who was born a warrior; Kept his sword arm strong by cutting the heads off of cows; Peter the Great underestimates him, and _______'s army decimates the Russians at the Battle of Narva; after this, he attacked Poland, and was eventually victorious after a seven year campaign. | 38 | |
| 107591883 | The Battle of Poltava | fought in the spring of 1709; arguably the most important battle in Russian history; Peter was nearly killed by cannon fire, but eventually his army wins. THIS IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT REPRESENTED THE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF RUSSIA, AS A MAJOR WORLD POWER. | 39 | |
| 107591884 | Treaty of Nystadt | ends the Great Northern War | 40 | |
| 107591885 | Table of Ranks | created by Peter the great; a hierarchy based on one's service to the state. People from the most humble backgrounds could be recognized based on their talents...However, this eventually faded away when these ranks became hereditary. | 41 | |
| 107591887 | Millet System | ethnic groups ruled by the respective religious leaders of that group. Despite this, the law of the land (of the Ottoman Empire) was Islamic, but it was loosely enforced. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT SHOWED THE RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE OF THE OTTOMANS. | 42 | |
| 107591888 | St. Thomas Aquinas | wrote the "Summa Theologica", which says that reason and faith both produce truth, and in so doing, this merged reason into Christian ideas | 43 | |
| 107591889 | Nicolaus Copernicus | Polish clergyman and astronomer; He preferred an old Greek idea being discussed in Renaissance Italy: the sun, rather than the earth, was at the center of the universe. He theorized that the stars and planets, including the earth, revolved around a fixed sun; He did not publish his On Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres until the year of his death. His significance is that he destroyed the idea of Aristotelian physics. As well as this, his book challenged traditional old world views—this was incredibly important in the scientific advancement of Europe. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS BOOK MADE PEOPLE CHALLENGE OLD WORLD VIEWS MORE. | 44 | |
| 107591890 | Tycho Brahe | Danish nobleman and astronomer; had a large number of connections; He is able, as a friend of the king of Denmark, to have the building of an observatory financed. This observatory had no telescope—just a big, clear, and open area for him to observe with his eyes alone. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE WITH HIS OBSERVATORY, HE FOUND THE UNIVERSE CONSTANTLY CHANGES. | 45 | |
| 107591891 | Johannes Kepler | Assistant to Tycho Brahe; He was an absolute genius; Devout Christian looking for something to glorify God; Came up with the three laws of planetary motion: 1) Planets move in elliptical movements around the sun, 2) In equal times, the planets will sweep out equal areas of the eclipse, and 3) The planet's speed of revolution depends on how far the planets are from the sun. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE PROVED MATHEMATICALLY THE PRECISE RELATIONS OF A SUN-CENTERED SOLAR SYSTEM AND IT DEMOLISHED THE IDEAS OF ARISTOTLE AND PTOLEMY. | 46 | |
| 107591892 | Galileo Galilei | Famous for his examination of motion and mechanics, and his elaboration and consolidation of the "experimental method." This was where, instead of merely speculating, he conducted controlled experiments to find out what would actually occur. He also formulated the Law of Inertia, which states that an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE DESTROYED ARISTOTELIAN PHYSICS AND TRIED TO PERSUADE PEOPLE TO OBSERVE AND COUNT INSTEAD OF LOOKING AT RELIGIOUS TEXT. HE IS THEN FORCED TO RECANT HIS IDEAS. | 47 | |
| 107591893 | Isaac Newton | Came from a poor family in England; Wins a scholarship to Cambridge; Came up with Calculus, as well as the laws of the physical world, over the course of a three month break from school when there was a plague epidemic; He later devoted his life to Christianity and alchemy; He eventually began to publish his ideas and findings, most notably in "The Principia." SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HE IS CONSIDERED THE HEART OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT--HIS IDEAS CHANGED THE WAY PEOPLE THOUGHT ABOUT THE UNIVERSE, LEADING TO THE ENLIGHTENMENT. | 48 | |
| 107591894 | The Principia | Written by Isaac Newton and published in Latin in 1687; In this, he combined the ideas of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo by using a set of mathematical laws that explain motion and mechanics. The key idea of this work was the "Law of Universal Gravitation" SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT HAD A TREMENDOUS EFFECT ON THE WAY PEOPLE THOUGHT--LEADING MORE TO THE ENLIGHTENMENT. | 49 | |
| 107591895 | Law of Universal Gravitation | Created by Isaac Newton; According to this law, every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship, whereby the force of attraction is proportional to the quantity of matter of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT IS THE FRAME OF THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE BECAUSE PLANETS MOVE IN ACCORDANCE WITH THIS LAW. | 50 | |
| 107591896 | Francis Bacon | English politician and writer; Very famous propagandist—he believed that in order to make scientific progress, one needs the support of the government; He also advocated a method of research that rejected Aristotelian speculation, in which he said that researchers should collect large amounts of data, compare and analyze this data, and then general principles will emerge. This form of inductive reasoning is called empiricism. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS USE OF INDUCTIVE REASONING WAS INDEPENDENT OF PRECONCEIVED RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS AND PROMOTED THE EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH OPEN-MINDEDLY. | 51 | |
| 107591897 | Rene Descartes | French philosopher, and genius; Used a system of deductive reasoning; Discovered analytic geometry—this was key in the development of science; Supposedly very lazy, and would take a long time to get out of bed. It was here(in bed) that he began to analyze the geometry in spider's webs and the algebra that could be applied to that geometry; He also wrote a book in which he questioned the truth in the presence of things he would observe. He went through all the senses and doubted everything until he came to one thing he felt he could not doubt—that he was thinking. "I think, therefore I am." SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE OF HIS USE OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING, AND DISCOVERY OF ANALYTIC GEOMETRY. | 52 | |
| 107591898 | Cartesian Dualism | This was Rene Descartes reasoning that ultimately reduced all substances to "matter" and "mind"—the physical and spiritual. | 53 | |
| 107591899 | Bernard de Fontenelle | French man of letters; wrote the "Conversation on the Plurality of Worlds." In this book, a sophisticated man and an elegant woman, possibly his lover, are in a large park gazing at the stars and the man proceeds to give her an astronomy lesson. Here, ideas such as heliocentricity were expressed; He knew people wouldn't want to read a boring textbook, so he wrote a romantic novel of sorts in order to get his ideas across. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS WRITING SPREAD THE IDEAS OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION TO A NON SCIENTIFIC AUDIENCE. | 54 | |
| 107591900 | Pierre Bayle | French Huguenot and skeptic who despised Louis XIV and found refuge in the Netherlands; Wrote the "Historical and Critical Dictionary." In this he demonstrated that human beliefs had been extremely varied and very often mistaken, he concluded that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt. It also said that religion as a philosophy at its best was a state of open-minded toleration. This book was re-printed frequently in England and the Netherlands and was found in more 18th century French libraries than any other book. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS SKEPTICISM WAS VERY INFLUENTIAL IN THE OPEN-MINDEDNESS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT. | 55 | |
| 107591901 | Montesquieu | One of the greatest philosophes; wrote "The Persian Letters," which was an incredibly influential social satire published in 1721. In this, two Persian travelers talk of their different ways of looking at things in Europe. In this way, he was able to cleverly criticize existing European ideas; He also wrote "The Spirit of Laws," in this book he tried to identify the natural laws of government. In this he also wrote that laws can be understood through reason, and that people are governed by these natural laws—the laws of reason; he also argued that despotism could be avoided if there was a separation of powers, with political power divided and shared by a variety of classes and legal estates holding unequal rights and privileges. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS THEORY OF THE SEPARATION OF POWERS INFLUENCED FUTURE GOVERNMENTS TO RULE BASED IN LARGE ON THIS THEORY AND HIS SATIRIC WORK WHICH SPREAD IDEAS DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT. | 56 | |
| 107591902 | Voltaire | (a.k.a. Francois Marie Arouet) came from a middle class family, caring little for aristocrats, but most of all, he hated the Catholic church; He believed in God, but felt that the Catholic church was preventing progress; He subscribed belief system of Deism. Deism says that God is like a watch maker and designed the universe and set it in motion based on the perfect, natural laws. It also says that God plays no personal role in your life, so prayer was pointless. Miracles would also violate the concept of natural laws, and thus didn't exist. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS IDEAS INFLUENCED IMPORTANT THINKERS IN THE AMERICAN AND FRENCH REVOLUTION. | 57 | |
| 107591903 | The Encyclopedia | Written by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Diderot was a famous journalist, and D'Alembert was one of Europe's leading scientists and mathematicians; After the appearance of the first volume, the pope temporarily banned its publication. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE ITS PUBLICATION HAD A GREAT INFLUENCE ON THE WAY PEOPLE THOUGHT. | 58 | |
| 108557206 | David Hume | Brilliant man, and one of the most radical thinkers in the enlightenment; One of the most of the most significant people to advocate skepticism. He argued that the human mind ins nothing but a bundle of impressions which originate only in sense experiences and our habits of joining these experiences together. Since our ideas ultimately reflect only our sense experiences, our reason cannot tell us anything about questions that cannot be verified by sense experience(in the form of controlled experiments or mathematics), such as the origin of the universe or existence of God; His ideas undermined the whole foundation of the enlightenment; Also, he believed his ideas weren't that productive for society, so he locked his writings in a desk, never to be touched by him again. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS RATIONALISTIC INQUIRY ENDED UP UNDERMINING THE ENLIGHTENMENT'S FAITH IN THE POWER OF REASON. | 59 | |
| 108557207 | Reading Revolution | this was the change in which people approached reading; books were more easily accessible, and more and more people began to read; Until this point, reading was a social activity in which the father(or head male) of a household would sit and read to his family, and there would be much discussion of the reading. But now, people were reading on a much more individual basis, and many people were reading different things. THIS IS SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE NOW, PEOPLE READING TO THEMSELVES BEGAN TO FORMULATE MANY OF THEIR OWN OPINIONS AND WORLD VIEWS. | 60 | |
| 108557208 | Salons | these were elegant private drawing room, in which discussions (primarily during parties) of enlightenment ideas spread tremendously. As parties were the primary means of entertainment for social and intellectual elites, their discussions often consisted of enlightenment topics. So, these served as the vehicle for the enlightenment philosophes to spread their ideas. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IDEAS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT WERE SPREAD THROUGH MANY OF THE CONVERSATIONS THAT OCCURRED IN THESE. | 61 | |
| 108557209 | Rococo | feminine and aristocratic style of art and design, which was popular throughout Europe in the 18th century. | 62 | |
| 108557210 | Coffee Houses | a common place for city people to go to discuss enlightenment ideas; these too served as vehicles for enlightenment philosophes trying to spread their ideas | 63 | |
| 108557211 | Book Clubs | Here, people would offer various papers on enlightenment/philosophical ideas. | 64 | |
| 108557212 | Jean Jacques Rousseau | Unlike other enlightenment thinkers, he attacked rationalism and civilization, saying that they destroy the individual—not liberate them. He felt warm and spontaneous feeling had to complement and correct cold intellect; His ideas also for the basis of progressive education, or child centered education; He also wrote the book, "The Social Contract" which is arguably the most important modern political work ever written. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS REJECTION OF RATIONALISM AND SOCIAL DISCOURSE MADE HIM A HARBINGER OF REACTION AGAINST ENLIGHTENMENT, AS WELL AS INFLUENCED THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT. | 65 | |
| 108557213 | The Social Contract | Written in 1762 by Jean Jacques Rousseau; this book was based in two fundamental concepts: the general will and popular sovereignty. The general will is sacred and absolute, reflecting the common interests of all the people, who have displaced the monarch as the holder of sovereign power. This will is not always the majority though, it can sometimes by the will of the farseeing minority; This justifies both democracy and modern totalitarianism. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT HELPED INSPIRE POLITICAL REFORMS AS WELL AS MANY REVOLUTIONS. | 66 | |
| 108557214 | Hogarth | published a series of satirical engravings; great success, and was able to embody the people's images like no other | 67 | |
| 108557215 | Fragonard | master of Rococo painting; his paintings are filled with lovers and gardens, over-achieving trees; he represented an end of an era. He leaned more towards the style closer to the heart of the enlightenment—neoclassicism. | 68 | |
| 108557216 | Neoclassicism | a renewed interest and affection for the art and stylistic character of Greece and Rome. The architecture was a clear representation of classical style. Greek and Roman myths also began to become a main subject matter in Opera as well. | 69 | |
| 108557217 | Haydn | The most popular instrumental composer in the late 18th century; spent many years as the court composer for the Estherhazy family—this was an ideal location for him to shape his classic 4 movement piece. This tightly nit orchestra created a vast array of moods and textures. He also developed the string quartet, which was intended to represent a lively conversation between people of different personalities. | 70 | |
| 108557218 | Mozart | GREATEST CHILD PRODIGY EVER; He was never satisfied with the status of a musician in a princely household. He soon embarked on the career of an independent musician in Vienna. He was eager to make his mark as an Opera composer. He worked in both German and Italian Opera mediums. All his operas are Rococo in tone. | 71 | |
| 108557219 | David | Painter; Painted the "Oath of Horation" and the "Death of Socrates", and "Brutus". In these, it was clear that the flowery Rococo period had ended. He essentially became the "dictator" of neoclassic art during his time. He presented many compelling images during the French Revolution. In these, he used the sharp details and empty areas he had used in the Roman pictures...This was all the more compelling. He was later sent to prison for 5 months. | 72 | |
| 108557220 | Beethoven | Went to Vienna in his late teens, and gained famed as one of the greatest pianist pianists and composers in Europe at the time. His music was more turbulent and upsetting than those before him; In his late twenties, he began to go deaf, almost causing him to kill himself...But he didn't; after going completely deaf, he continued to write possibly his most compelling music. | 73 | |
| 108557221 | Goya | born in 1746; his early works are more rococo in style, but there's an earthy organic quality which sets him apart from earlier rococo painters. Sometimes the mood of his paintings is quite grim. By the last decade of the century, he was the leading portrait painting in Spain. But as he had become deaf, his style became more austere, and serious. In 1800, he painted a large portrait of the royal family, but what is so striking is the penetrating sharp looks on their faces. He soon started lashing out on vanity and hypocrisy. He macabre satirical paintings. He eventually retired to country, to live an existence of solitude. | 74 | |
| 108557222 | Adam Smith | Scottish; Wrote "The Wealth of Nations", which laid out the principles for capitalism, as well as attacks the foundations of mercantilism. As opposed to a nation's wealth in gold or silver, he believed wealth was determined based on a nation's production; He argues that if you allow people to have more economic(?) freedom, they will naturally act in their own self interest—according to him, this is good; He also felt that there should be "Laissez faire", or let it be. Meaning the government should stay off the people's backs in terms of their methods of productivity; He also took the ideas of the physiocrats and universalized them in the ways he looker at "supply and demand."; He also said that the responsibilites of the gov't are threefold: 1) TO PROTECT YOUR COUNTRY FROM INVASION, 2) MAINTAIN LAW AND ORDER IN THE STATE, 3) THE GOVERNMENT SHOULD BE INVOLVED IN THE ASPECTS OF THE COUNTRY THAT PRIVATE BUSINESSES AREN'T. | 75 | |
| 108557223 | Physiocrats | economic group who felt that the best means of production was in agriculture. The felt, and correctly so, that all sorts of taxation on the peasants, tariffs, etc, slowed down production greatly. | 76 | |
| 108557224 | Beccaria | Wrote an essay on crime and punishment; He wanted to discover the natural laws of crime and punishment. So, he came up with the three principles of crime and punishment: 1) Punishment must be made as certain as possible to those who would commit a crime. As a result of this, in the second half of the 18th century, we see the development of organized police forces. 2) Punishments should be proportional to the crime. This means that if a person stole a loaf of bread, or some other petty crime of a similar nature, they should not face capital punishment. Plus, juries are more inclined to vote guilty on a person if they know they aren't sentencing him or her to death. 3) Punishments should be uniform—if one committed a crime, they should receive the punishment designated for that crime. The belief here is that if people know and understand their definite punishment, they'll be less inclined to carry out the criminal act. | 77 | |
| 108557225 | Penitentiaries | These were prisons that started teaching prisoners reason, and the err in their rationality (or ways). | 78 | |
| 108557226 | The Seven Years War | In this, the Austrians wanted to reverse the events that transpired with their defeat during the War of Austrian Succession. So, their foreign minister, Kaunite, said the need a new, powerful ally—France. The pact they make with France is called The Diplomatic Revolution. Fredrick suspects something is up, and so he attacks Saxony, where he is then attacked by the allies formed in the diplomatic revolution. Though Fredrick fights very well, he is nearly overrun several times. However, eventually Elizabeth I of Russia dies, and Peter III he successor(who admired Fredrick) refuses to carry on the fighting. The war ends in 1763 with the treaty of paris. | 79 | |
| 108557227 | Catherine The Great | Remarkable woman; Married Peter III but didn't care for him very much—she felt he was stupid and ugly. She's eventually able to get her lover Gregory Orlov to murder peter; She then becomes ruler in 1762, as well as the darling of the enlightenment; She had a LOT of lovers—she had finding, screening(for stds), etc down to an art form with these guys; Even though she was considered the "darling of the enlightenment", she really did nothing to help advance enlightenment-esque things. The only exception to this was that she did truly support the arts—theater, beautification of St. Petersburg, etc; She also did expand Russia and make it a much stronger state. | 80 | |
| 108557228 | Maria Theresa | She HATED the enlightenment; Devout Catholic; Tried to ban circulation of many enlightenment books; However, she did match many policies of the enlightenment: (in truth, these were truly only for increasing the efficiency of the state) lessens the influence of the papacy in Austria, tries to improve conditions for peasants, creates and is interested in many administrative reforms. | 81 | |
| 108557229 | Joseph II | Son of Maria Theresa; Became co-ruler with her in 1765, and the complete ruler some years later; Truly committed to the enlightenment, but according to his epitaph, everything he tried to accomplish failed, or so he felt; But, despite what he felt, he didn't fail in one specific area—education. He confiscated the lands of the contemplative(only praying) church orders and took this wealth to build many new schools. Everyone could go to these schools, and even though there was a small tuition, there were scholarships available to those in need. | 82 | |
| 109231976 | On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres | Written by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543; included his heliocentric ideas, proclaiming the universe as extremely large, and that the earth is simply another planet rotating around the sun; SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE HIS BOOK MADE PEOPLE CHALLENGE OLD WORLD VIEWS--IN THIS CASE OF THE UNIVERSE | 83 | |
| 109231977 | Essay concerning human understanding | written in 1690 by John Locke; said that humans understand because of senses and experience. The human mind at birth is like a blank slate--"tabula rasa" and it develops through education and social institutions. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT CHANGED THE WAY MANY THOUGHT--MORE ENLIGHTENMENT. | 84 | |
| 109231978 | Historical and Critical dictionary | by French Hugenot Pierre Bayle; examined religious beliefs and persecutions of the past, demonstrating that human beliefs are extremely varied and nothing can be known beyond all doubt. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT WAS VERY SKEPTICAL. | 85 | |
| 109231979 | Spirit of laws | political theory book written in 1748 by Montesquieu; said that the natural law of government was all about liberty and no abuse of power. he introduced his theory of the separation of powers, which was essentially the checks and balances system. SIGNIFICANT BECAUSE IT INFLUENCED THE WAY FUTURE GOV'TS WOULD RULE. | 86 |
