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| 5094347762 | Community | All species that exist in a certain area + interact - directly and indirectly |  | 0 |
| 5094351934 | How to species interact indirectly | Via an intermediate species | 1 | |
| 5094353814 | Fitness | Ability to survive + produce fertile, viable offspring | 2 | |
| 5094356971 | Interaction affects: | 1) Distribution + abundance 2) Natural selection + coevolution 3) Dynamic + conditional | 3 | |
| 5106526408 | Coevolution | 2 species reciprocally influence each other's adaptations e.g. prey gets faster, so predator gets faster | 4 | |
| 5094367744 | Commensalism | One species benefitted, one unaffected; conditional |  | 5 |
| 5094373711 | Problem of neutral effects | Difficult to quantify | 6 | |
| 5094375768 | Competition | Lowers fitness for both species using the same resources | 7 | |
| 5094379662 | When do interspecific interactions occur? | When niches overlap | 8 | |
| 5094386163 | Niche | Range of resources species can use or range of conditions in can tolerate | 9 | |
| 5094393579 | Symmetric Competition | Both species in overlap area persist, but at reduced population sizes |  | 10 |
| 5094403000 | Asymmetric Competition | One species suffers greater fitness decline; dependent on extent of niche overlap |  | 11 |
| 5094415101 | Competition Exclusion | 2 species cannot coexist if they have identical niches - asymmetric competition |  | 12 |
| 5094435470 | Fundamental niche | Total theoretical range of niche | 13 | |
| 5094437072 | Realised niche | Portion of fundamental niche species actually occupies - barriers, predators, competition etc. could be in way | 14 | |
| 5106543492 | Niche Modeling | Using geo-referenced data from history collections + databases - get latitude + longitude points and their bioclim data | 15 | |
| 5106551841 | What do you use Niche Modeling for? | Use software to predict distribution of fundamental niche; predict spread of introduced species; suggest new places to start recording abundance | 16 | |
| 5106564507 | How to do experiments with competition | Remove one of competitors - observe response of other | 17 | |
| 5106570891 | Niche Differentiation | Evolutionary change in resource use caused by competition over generations | 18 | |
| 5106582112 | Character Displacement | Evolutionary change in species' traits enabling it exploit different resources - allows for niche differentiation when sympatric + asymmetric speciation | 19 | |
| 5106591702 | Resource Partitioning | Occupying slightly different parts of habitat or using same resource slightly differently e.g. Warbler birds on a tree | 20 | |
| 5106598966 | Sympatric | Speciation alongside other species | 21 | |
| 5106600856 | Allopatric | Speciation in separate areas | 22 | |
| 5106611249 | Consumption | Increases consumer's fitness, decreases prey's fitness | 23 | |
| 5106612968 | Herbivory | Herbivores consume plant tissues | 24 | |
| 5106617869 | Meta-Analysis | Study of studies- analysis of large data sets | 25 | |
| 5106627563 | Top-down control of herbivores | Herbivore populations limited by predation + disease | 26 | |
| 5106629185 | Bottom-up limitation | Plant tissues offer poor nutrition + well defended - have less than 10% nitrogen found in animal tissues of equal weight | 27 | |
| 5106642898 | Why can't herbivores just eat more food to solve the nutrient problem? | Risk of predation too dangerous | 28 | |
| 5106645432 | Parasitism | Host suffers, parasite gains | 29 | |
| 5106648090 | Brood Parasitism | Birds lay eggs in nests of other species | 30 | |
| 5106651429 | Controlling hosts/manipulation | Must transmit self between hosts; Zombie ants + fungus, flatworms controlling snails so the climb higher and look like caterpillars so eaten by birds | 31 | |
| 5106656431 | Benefit of Parasites | Stop certain species dominating areas if populations get too large | 32 | |
| 5106661825 | Social parasites | Using other species to raise young | 33 | |
| 5106692353 | Why are parasites not all fatal? | Often much smaller than host | 34 | |
| 5106698890 | Predation | Predator kills + consumes all/most of another individual | 35 | |
| 5106704691 | Constitutive Defences | Permanent defenses against predation; present even in absence of predators, including cryptic colouration, escape behaviour, toxins | 36 | |
| 5106711248 | Aposematic Colouration | Organisms that produce toxins are colourful |  | 37 |
| 5106714101 | Disruptive Colouration | When in a herd - cannot pick out individuals |  | 38 |
| 5106723042 | Mimicry | One species resembling another | 39 | |
| 5106726646 | Batesian mimicry | Harmless or tasty species mimics a harmful one (Bates a companion of Wallace on Brazil trip) |  | 40 |
| 5106735229 | Mullerian mimicry | 2 toxic species look similar - increases likelihood that predators learn to avoid them |  | 41 |
| 5106739324 | Aggressive mimicry | Predators mimic harmless species - innocent looking fly trap |  | 42 |
| 5106798965 | Inducible defences | Physical/chemical/behavioural traits induced in prey when predator present | 43 | |
| 5106803485 | Example | Mussels have thicker shells when crabs present | 44 | |
| 5106809489 | Benefits of inducible defenses over constitutive defences | Energetically efficient but slow to produce | 45 | |
| 5106820205 | Phenotypic Plasticity | Genotype can produce different phenotypes depending on environment | 46 | |
| 5106829283 | How do plants show inducible defences | Produce proteins e.g. radishes producing glucosinolates and trichome hairs when exposed to herbivores | 47 | |
| 5106835985 | Indirect Inducible Defence by plants | Attract other predators to attack herbivores | 48 | |
| 5106847132 | Prey's intrinsic growth rate (rmax) compared to predators | Larger - physically smaller animals, produce more offspring, mature earlier | 49 | |
| 5106849730 | What is the Rmax value | Max. population growth rate achievable under ideal conditions | 50 | |
| 5106864256 | Proof that predators still efficient in reducing prey populations | Population cycles, predator removal, biological control | 51 | |
| 5106870128 | Predators advances | Speed, nocturnal vision, venom, surprise, strength, herd cooperation Owls - binocular vision, fringed feathers for silent flying | 52 | |
| 5106874899 | Arms race | Due to predator + prey interactions and coevolution; traits increasing efficiency become more abundant - humans and plasmodium | 53 | |
| 5106909247 | Biocontrol | Using predators or parasites to control pests - helps maximize production whilst minimizing use of insecticides/other harmful compounds | 54 | |
| 5106919395 | Problem of biocontrol | Could be introducing invasive species | 55 | |
| 5106922313 | Mutualism | Fitness benefits for both species involved |  | 56 |
| 5106928417 | Rewards from mutualism | Transporting gametes; getting food; housing; protection | 57 | |
| 5106931375 | 3 types of mutualism | 1) Resource-resource based 2) Resource-service based 3) Service-service based | 58 | |
| 5106940031 | Alternative name | Reciprocal parasitism (Judith) - not a form of species simply being nice to one another | 59 | |
| 5106944345 | Deceitful mutualism | Deceit pollinators - attractive but provide no pollen, or nectar robbing - takes nectar without pollinating: cheaters; natural selection favours these | 60 | |
| 5106948879 | Dynamic or static? | Dynamic - could switch from positive affects to one organism suffering in particular conditions - switches from parasitism, mutualism, to competiton | 61 | |
| 5106956010 | Is sharing always equal? | No - can be asymmetrical e.g. plant roots and mycorrhizal fungi | 62 | |
| 5106971288 | Increasing other species fitness instead of your own? | Natural selection does increase fitness of other species; but must increase own fitness too | 63 | |
| 5106974467 | Ammensalism | Neutral effect on one species, negative on the other |  | 64 |
| 5106982350 | What does community structure depend on | 1) Total # of species 2) Relative abundance of each species 3) Sum interactions among all species 4) Physical attributes of community - its abiotic factors and biotic factors | 65 | |
| 5107005781 | Clements' Views on Community Predictability | 1) Communities stable, orderly + predictable 2) Coevolution important - species unlikely to exist if other is not present too 3) Will reach the stable Climax Community - determined by environment | 66 | |
| 5107024909 | Gleason's Views | 1) Communities neither stable nor predictable 2) Matter of chance if community develops in same area after a disturbance 3) Believes less in importance of biotic factors and species interactions | 67 | |
| 5107038183 | Experimental test on ponds and 2 possible hypotheses | 1) If community predictable: each pond should develop in the same way 2) If community unpredictable: each pond should develop differently | 68 | |
| 5107044478 | Reality | Both hypotheses partially correct; both biotic interactions + climate and chance + history important in determining species presence - range is independent | 69 | |
| 5114057829 | Keystone species | One that has a large impact on community structure - greater impact of distribution + abundance of surrounding species than its abundance + total biomass would suggest - typically consumers/predators; maintains biodiversity/species richness | 70 | |
| 5114063129 | How could the structural species be removed? | Harvesting, disease, competition with an invasive species, climate change | 71 | |
| 5114068112 | Food Web | Network of exchanges of energy + nutrients among producers, consumers + decomposer - focuses on feeding interactions | 72 | |
| 5114072093 | Use food webs to look at | Effects of keystone species | 73 | |
| 5114073410 | Food chain | Single path within a food web | 74 | |
| 5114074939 | Trophic level | Position of organism within a food chain | 75 | |
| 5157027509 | Producer | Produces own biomass from inorganic compounds |  | 76 |
| 5157030987 | Consumer | Cannot produce own biomass from inorganic compounds, so consumers other organisms |  | 77 |
| 5157039531 | Decomposer | Fungi/bacteria that produce biomass by breaking down dead organisms |  | 78 |
| 5114081618 | Disturbance | Strong, short lived disruption to community - changes distribution of organisms + resources |  | 79 |
| 5114087996 | Examples of disturbances | Fires, windstorms, floods, tree falls, disease epidemics | 80 | |
| 5114092225 | What resources could be changed? | Light levels, nutrients, unoccupied space | 81 | |
| 5114102635 | Disturbance Regime | Predictable frequency and severity in particular areas - characteristic disturbance | 82 | |
| 5114112228 | Why need a regime? | To maintain communities in good condition, must ensure normal regime or community composition changes dramatically | 83 | |
| 5114115694 | Post-disturbance | Organisms replace those lost | 84 | |
| 5114118294 | Primary Succession | Disturbance removes soil + organisms - after floods, volcanic eruptions, landslides |  | 85 |
| 5114124280 | How does soil reform? | Weathered rock; dead organisms and faeces add to the substrate organic matter; thick enough and roots can take hold | 86 | |
| 5114130149 | Secondary Succession | Disturbance removes some organisms from area but leaves soil in tact - after fires + logging | 87 | |
| 5114141965 | Pioneer species characteristics | Short-lived; small size; high dispersal range; small seeds; rapid growth; high reproductive rate; mature young; extreme condition tolerance |  | 88 |
| 5114147966 | Climax species | Long lived; large size; large seeds; good competitors | 89 | |
| 5114153613 | What determines area's successional pathway | Traits of species involved; species interactions; historical + environmental conditions | 90 | |
| 5114160836 | How are pioneers "weedy" | Adapted to disturbed soils; tolerant serves abiotic conditions e.g. light levels, poor nutrient availability, desiccation; devote most energy to reproducing not competing | 91 | |
| 5114167410 | Facilitation | Early arriving species make conditions more favourable e.g. providing space, nutrients | 92 | |
| 5114170132 | Tolerance | Existing species that don't affect subsequent species establishing | 93 | |
| 5114172771 | Inhibition | Makes establishment of subsequent species harder e.g. trees blocking sunlight | 94 |
