By: 3rd Jonathan Pheng and Nhi Nguyen
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| 2810356621 | Sumer | The world's first civilization, the Sumerians were the dominant people in Mesopotamia. Human numbers grew especially fast in the land of Sumer in the southern half of Mesopotamia. By about 5000 B.C.E. the Sumerians were constructing elaborate irrigation networks that helped them realize abundant agricultural harvests. |  | 0 |
| 2810405871 | Semitic Migrants | The wealth of Sumer attracted migrants from other regions. People who spoke Akkadian, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Phoenician moved in to Sumer. Semitic peoples were nomadic herders who went to Mesopotamia from Arabian and Syrian deserts to the south and west. |  | 1 |
| 2810407205 | Sumerian City-States | By 3000 BCE, Sumerians built cities surrounded by fields of crops. Each is a city-state and each have an independent political unit. These cities all experienced internal and external pressures that prompted them to establish states; formal government institutions that wielded authority throughout their territories. |  | 2 |
| 2810409446 | Sumerian Kings | The earliest Sumerian governments were probably assemblies of prominent men who made decisions for the whole community. These individual rulers gradually seized the authority of the assemblies and established them as monarchs. |  | 3 |
| 2810403755 | Sargon of Akkad | (2370-2315 BCE) Sargon was the creator of empire in Mesopotamia. Sargon; a talented administrator and warrior, was a minister to the king of the Kish. He organized a coup against the king, recruited an army, and went on the offensive against the Sumerian city-states. He conquered the cities one by one, destroyed their defensive walls, and placed them under his own governors and administrators. |  | 4 |
| 2810357182 | Hammurabi and the Babylonian Empire | 1792-1750 BCE Babylonian Hammurabi; styled himself as "king of the four quarters of the world." Hammurabi improved on Sargon's administrative techniques by relying on centralized bureaucratic rule and regular taxation. Hammurabi developed a more efficient and predictable government than his predecessors and also spread its costs more evenly over the population. |  | 5 |
| 2810358592 | Hammurabi's Laws | Hammurabi maintained his empire by setting a code of law. Hammurabi's laws established high standards of behavior and stern punishments for violators. They prescribed death penalties for murder, theft, frauds, false accusations,etc.. The code relied heavily on the principle of lex talionis, the"law of retaliation." |  | 6 |
| 2810360978 | The Assyrian Empire | The Assyrian state was one among many struggling for power and position in northern Mesopotamia. The Assyrians relied on the administrative techniques pioneered by their Babylonian predecessors. A combination of internal unrest and external assault brought their empire down in 612 B.C.E. |  | 7 |
| 2810361343 | Nebuchadnezzar and the New Babylonian Empire | King Nebuchadnezzar gave wealth and resources for his capital city. Babylon occupied some 850 hectares, and the city's defensive walls were reportedly so thick that a four-horse chariot could turn around on top of them. |  | 8 |
| 2810366834 | Bronze Metallurgy | Craftsman had fashioned copper into tools and jewelry, however, copper is to soft to be worked on. Experimentation with copper metallurgy led to the invention of bronze. Bronze had an immediate impact on military affairs, as craftsman turned out swords, spears, axes, and armor. |  | 9 |
| 2810372808 | Iron Metallurgy | Experimentation with iron metallurgy began as early as the fourth millennium B.C.E. Iron soon spread throughout Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and other regions as well, and Assyrian conquerors made used iron weapons in building their empire. Since iron deposits are much cheaper and more available than copper and tin, iron quickly became the metal of choice for weapons and tools. |  | 10 |
| 2810373491 | The Wheel | The first use of wheels probably took place about 3500 B.C.E. Efficient means of transportation were based on wheeled vehicles and sailing ships, both of which facilitated long distance trade. Wheeled carts and wagons enabled people to haul heavy loads of bulk goods, such as grains, bricks, or metal ores, over much longer distances than human porters or draft animals can manage. |  | 11 |
| 2812390070 | Shipbuilding | Sumerians experimented with technologies of maritime transportation. By 3500 B.C.E. they had built watercraft that allowed them to venture into the Persian Gulf and beyond. Sumerian merchants shipped woolen textiles, leather goods, sesame oil, and jewelry to India in exchange for copper, ivory, pearls, and semiprecious stones. |  | 12 |
| 2812390769 | Trade Networks | Assyrian merchants traveled regularly by donkey caravan some 1,600 kilometers from their home of Assur in northern Mesopotamia to Kanesh in Anatolia. Merchants transported at least eighty tons of tin and one hundred thousand textiles from Assur and returned with no less than ten tons of silver. |  | 13 |
| 2810375050 | Social Classes | Agriculture enabled human groups to accumulate wealth, and clear distinctions between the more and less wealthy. With increasingly specialized labor and long distance trade, however, cities provided more opportunities for the accumulation of wealth. Community members originally elected their kings, but royal status soon became hereditary, as kings arranged for their sons to succeed them. |  | 14 |
| 2812392090 | Temple Communities | The principal role of the priestly elites was to intervene with the gods to ensure good fortune for their communities. Temples generated their own income from vast tracts of land that they owned and large workshops that they maintained. Temples functioned as banks where individuals could store wealth, and they helped underwrite trading ventures to distant lands. |  | 15 |
| 2810379873 | Slaves | Slaves came from three main sources; prisoners of war, convicted criminals, and heavily indebted individuals who sold themselves into slavery in order to satisfy their obligations. Some slaves worked as agricultural laborers on the estates of nobles or temple communities, but most were domestic servants in wealthy households. |  | 16 |
| 2810380192 | Patriarchal Society | Mesopotamians built a patriarchal society that vested authority over public and private affairs in adult men. Within their households men decided the work that family members would perform and made marriage arrangements for their children, as well as others who came under their authority. Men ruled as kings, and decisions about policies and public affairs, rested almost entirely in men's hands. |  | 17 |
| 2810382181 | Women's Roles | Few women wielded great power as high priestesses who managed the enormous estates belonging to their temples. Others obtained a formal education and worked as scribes. Women also pursued careers as midwives, shopkeepers, brewers, bakers, tavern keepers, and textile manufactures. |  | 18 |
| 2810383205 | Cuneiform Writing | A writing system that depends on pictures, useful for purposes such as keeping records, but is a cumbersome way to communicate abstract ideas. By 2900 B.C.E. the Sumerians developed a more flexible system of writing that used graphic symbols to represent sounds, syllables, and ideas as well as physical objects. |  | 19 |
| 2810386083 | Education | Most education in ancient times was vocational instruction designed to train individuals to work in specific trades and crafts. Most of those who learned to read and write became scribes, or government officials. A few pursued their studies further and became priests, physicians, or professionals such as engineers and architects. Literacy was essential to the smooth functioning of Mesopotamian society. |  | 20 |
| 2810388203 | Astronomy and Mathematics | Mesopotamian scholars devoted themselves to the study of astronomy and mathematics; both important sciences for agricultural societies. Knowledge of astronomy helped them prepare accurate calendars, which in turn enabled them to chart the rhythms of the seasons and determine the appropriate times for planning and harvesting crops. They used their mathematical skills to survey agricultural lands and allocate them to proper owners or tenants. |  | 21 |
| 2810389241 | The Epic of Gilgamesh | Best known of the reflective literature from Mesopotamia. Epic of Gilgamesh is about the experiences of Gilgamesh and Enkidu, the epic explored themes of friendship, relations between humans and the gods, and especially the meaning of life and death. |  | 22 |
| 2810391867 | The Early Hebrews | The earliest Hebrews were pastoral nomads who inhabited lands between Egypt and Mesopotamia during the second millennium B.C.E. As Mesopotamia prospered, some of the Hebrews settled into the region's cities. |  | 23 |
| 2810393380 | Moses and Monotheism | Moses taught that there was only one god, Yahweh, who was the creator and the one who sustains the world. He also taught that the Mesopotamian gods were false. |  | 24 |
| 2812398155 | The Early Phoenician | The Phoenicians occupied a narrow coastal plain between the Mediterranean Sea and Lebanon Mountains north of the Israelite's kingdom. They spoke a Semitic language, referred to themselves as Canannites, and their land as Canaan. |  | 25 |
| 2812398516 | Phoenician Trade Networks | The Phoenicians were known for their maritime trade networks. Lacking a agricultural society, the Phoenicians turned to trade. They traded things like metal goods, textiles and pottery for food and raw materials. |  | 26 |
| 2812399596 | Alphabetic Writing | By 1500 B.C.E, Phoenicians developed an alphabetic script consisting of 22 symbols each representing a consonant. It had no symbols for vowels. |  | 27 |
| 2812400340 | Indo-European Languages | The Indo-European family consists of many languages form Europe, southwest Asia, and India. |  | 28 |
| 2812400791 | The Indo-European Homeland | The original homeland was most likely the steppe region of modern day Ukraine and southern Russia. Just north of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. |  | 29 |
| 2812400792 | Horses | Indo-Europeans domesticated horses around 4000 B.C.E. They most likely used horses as a source of food initially but started riding them once they were domesticated. |  | 30 |
| 2812404591 | The Hittites | Probably the most influential Indo-European group in ancient times, the Hittites migrated to Anatolia. In 1595 B.C.E, they toppled the Babylonian empire and were the dominating power in southwest Asia. Their empire declined after 1200 B.C.E due to invaders. |  | 31 |
| 2812405111 | War Chariots | The Hittites were the ones who innovated the chariots using spoked wheels making them lighter and easier to maneuver. |  | 32 |
| 2812421816 | Early Sudanic Agriculture | The people of Eastern Sudan were herders until about 7500 B.C.E when they began to settle and cultivate. |  | 33 |
| 2812421820 | Climatic Change | At around 5000 B.C.E, the northern half of Africa experienced long term climate change. The Sahara which at this point could support life became increasingly arid. |  | 34 |
| 2812423133 | The Nile River Valley | The world's longest river flows from Lake Victoria . The Nile flooded yearly, leaving behind rich, fertile soil. |  | 35 |
| 2812423764 | Early Agriculture in the Nile Valley | The Egyptians were able to use the flood of Nile to make ease of their agriculture. They could sow their seeds easily and simply harvest them in winter and early spring. |  | 36 |
| 2812424034 | Political Organization | The earliest Egyptian and Nubian states were small kingdoms. In the following centuries, residents living farther down to Nile founded similar states. |  | 37 |
| 2812424035 | Menes | A conqueror that unified Egypt. He rose to power in southern Egypt and extended his authority north. He founded the city of Memphis near modern day Cairo. |  | 38 |
| 2812425843 | The Archaic Period and the Old Kingdom | The period of Egyptian history where the power of the pharaohs was strongest and the period the pyramids were built. The Archaic Period was 3100 -2600 B.C.E and the Early Kingdom was 2660-2160 B.C.E. |  | 39 |
| 2812426215 | Relations between Egypt and Nubia | Both civilizations were wary of each other. Egypt because they thought Nubia would threaten Upper Egypt and they desired things like gold and precious stones that only came from Nubia. Nubia was equally wary of their northern neighbors and sought to control trade along the Nile. |  | 40 |
| 2812426666 | The Early Kingdom of Kush | A kingdom founded by the Nubians that dominated the upper parts of the Nile and occasionally threatened southern Egypt. | | 41 |
| 2812426958 | The Middle Kingdom | Pharaohs of this kingdom weren't as powerful as pharaohs of the Old Kingdom but they were able to unite Egypt after the period of unrest. 2040-1640 B.C.E |  | 42 |
| 2812426959 | The Hyksos | A group of Semitic people who were horse-riding nomads and captured Memphis around 1674 B.C.E. They probably introduced horses to Egypt and bronze weapons. |  | 43 |
| 2812427453 | The New Kingdom | Pharaohs of the new kingdom ruled over a prosperous society. Agricultural surplus supported a large population . The pharaohs of this period didn't build pyramids but they did build temples and palaces to showcase their power. |  | 44 |
| 2812428150 | Egyptian Imperialism | The New Kingdom pharaohs expelled the Hyksos and worked to extend Egyptian power. Tutmosis III personally led campaigns to Palestine and Syria. He also dominated the coastal regions of eastern Mediterranean and north Africa. |  | 45 |
| 2812428791 | The Revived Kingdom of Kush | The Nubian leaders established this kingdom around the tenth century this time with its capital in Napata. King Kashta created a dynasty that ruled Egypt for almost a century. |  | 46 |
| 2812428792 | Cities of the Nile Valley | Cities weren't as prominent in Egypt as they were in Mesopotamia. People were mostly clustered in villages although there were some major cities. Menes founded Memphis and it became the capital due to its location. Thebes was also an important city and so was Heliopolis. |  | 47 |
| 2812430776 | Transportation | Egypt had the Nile as a source of transportation. The current flowed north and the winds blew south. Transportation was just a matter of using sails or omitting them. |  | 48 |
| 2812431866 | Hieroglyphic Writing | The system of Egyptian writing that used pictographs to depict sounds and ideas. Hieroglyphs were cumbersome to use in everyday affairs so Egyptians commonly used hieratic, a simplified form of hieroglyphics. |  | 49 |
| 2812434586 | Meroitic Writing | An alphabetic script devised by Nubian scribes where the hieroglyphics represented sounds and therefore was a more flexible system of writing. |  | 50 |
| 2812435145 | Amon and Re | Amon was a Theban diety associated with the sun and Re was the sun god worshiped in Heliopolis. Many preists worshiped them as a combine cult known as Amon-Re. |  | 51 |
| 2812435682 | Aten and Monotheism | A pharaoh tried to change the religion of Egypt from worshiping Amon-Re to a god named Aten. This represented monotheism as he view Aten as the sole god. |  | 52 |
| 2812435683 | Mummification | Mummification was the practice of preserving the body because the Egyptians believed that the afterlife was an extension of this life. |  | 53 |
| 2812437279 | Nubian Religious Beliefs | Nubian probably inherited their practices from early societies of Sudan. The most prominent of Nubian religion was probably the lion god Apedemak who served as a war god. |  | 54 |
| 2821698481 | Cult of Osiris | The cult of Osiris attached particularly strong popular interest. According to the myths surrounding the cult, Osiris's evil brother Seth murdered him and scattered his dismembered parts throughout the land, but the victim's loyal wife, Isis, retrieved his parts and gave her husband a proper burial. Impressed by her devotion, the gods restored Osiris to life. Egyptians associated Osiris with the Nile and their crops. |  | 55 |
| 2812437280 | The Bantu | The Bantu were probably the most influential people do sub-sharan Africa. The Bantu inhabited region in the eastern part of what is now Nigeria and the southern part of modern day Cameroon. |  | 56 |
| 2812437659 | Bantu Migrations | The Bantu displayed a readiness to migrate. By 3000 B.C.E they were slowly spreading south into the west African forest and after 2000 B.C.E they expanded rapidly to the Congo Basin River. |  | 57 |
| 2812438207 | Iron and Migration | The Bantus production of iron tools and weapons helped to quicken Bantu migration. Iron tools allowed the people to clear land and expand agriculture even more. Iron weapons helped the Bantu against adversaries. |  | 58 |
| 2812438599 | Spread of Agriculture | Between 1000 and 500 B.C.E cultivators spread yams and grains into eats and South Africa. Meanwhile herders introduced sheep and cattle to the region. |  | 59 |
| 2812439408 | Religious Beliefs | Sudanic and Niger-Congo people had monotheistic beliefs. They believed in a divine force that could take the form of spirits and often addressed this force through prayers. |  | 60 |
| 2812439956 | The Indus River | The Indus got its water from rain and melting snow in the mountains. As the waters travel downhill, they pick up silt and like the Nile, the Indus floods and deposits this silt. |  | 61 |
| 2812439957 | Political Org. | The earliest Egyptian and Nubian states were small kingdoms. In the following centuries, residents living farther down to Nile founded similar states. |  | 62 |
| 2812442216 | Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro | Two of the most important cites of the Indus Valley civilizations. Both had city walls and a citadel. Both had market places , temples, and public buildings. Mohenjo-Daro had a large pool that could've been used for religious purposes. |  | 63 |
| 2812442873 | Specialized Labor and Trade | Pottery and tools from the two cities found its way to all corners of the Indus Valley. The Harrapans traded these things for gold, silver and copper. They also traded with Mesopotamians as proven by the Indus Valley seals found in Mesopotamia. |  | 64 |
| 2812445275 | Harappan Decline | Harrapan society entered a period of decline around 1900 B.C.E. There are two theories for this. One is ecological degradation and the other is natural catastrophes. |  | 65 |
| 2812445750 | The Early Aryans | The Aryans practiced a small amount of agriculture when they first came to India but depended more on pastoral way of life. The Aryans used horses to pull carts and wagons and to facilitate transport. |  | 66 |
| 2812445751 | The Vedas | The Vedas are a collection of hymns, songs, prayers and rituals honoring the various Aryan gods. They represent a priestly perspective on affairs. |  | 67 |
| 2812446440 | The Vedic Age | The period in which the Vedas were composed. The Vedas refer frequently to conflicts between Aryans and indigenous peoples whom the Aryans called dasas, meaning enemies or subject peoples. | | 68 |
| 2812447135 | Aryan Migrations in India | The Aryan groups settled in the Punjab then began to move east and south establishing communities along the way. |  | 69 |
| 2812447824 | Caste and Varna | Caste developed as the Aryans established settlements. Differences between them and the Dravidians probably prompted them to create social distinctions. |  | 70 |
| 2812449004 | Social Distinctions in the Late Vedic Age | At the end of the Vedic age, Aryans added the category of Untouchables to their caste system- people who did the unpleasant tasks such as butchering. | | 71 |
| 2812450007 | Subcastes and Jati | People working in similar tasks had the same jati. Occupation was a large part in determining a persons jati. |  | 72 |
| 2812450632 | Caste and Social Mobility | The castes system wasn't a rigid system but rather operated to accommodate for social change. Someone can move up or down the ladder depending on how they live their life. |  | 73 |
| 2812451043 | The Lawbook of Manu | The Lawbook of Manu reflected the society constructed earlier under Aryan influence. The author advised men to treat women with honor and respect, but he insisted that women remain subject to the guidance of the principal men in their lives. The Lawbook also specified that the most important duties of women were to bear children and maintain wholesome homes for their families. |  | 74 |
| 2812451044 | Sati | One Indian custom demonstrated in especially dramatic fashion the dependence of women on their men, the practice of sati. A widow voluntarily threw herself on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband to join him in death. Sati never became a popular or widely practiced custom in India. |  | 75 |
| 2812452248 | Aryan Gods | The chief deity of the Rig Veda was Indra, the boisterous and often violent character who was partial both to fighting and to strong drink. The Aryans portrayed him as the wielder of thunderbolts who led them into battle against their enemies. The Aryans also recognized a host of other deities, including gods of the sun, the sky, the moon, fire, health, disease, dawn, and the underworld. |  | 76 |
| 2812452711 | Ritual Sacrifices | They involved the slaughter of dozens and sometimes even hundreds of specially prepared animals, as priests spoke the sacred and mysterious chants and worshipers partook of soma, a hallucinogenic concoction that produced sensations of power and divine inspiration. The Aryans believed that during the sacrificial event their gods visited the earth and joined the worshipers in ritual eating and drinking. |  | 77 |
| 2812452712 | Spirituality | Later in the Vedic age, Aryan religious thought underwent a remarkable evolution. Many Aryans became dissatisfied with the sacrificial cults of the Vedas, which increasingly seemed like sterile rituals rather than a genuine means of communicating with the gods. |  | 78 |
| 2812453583 | The Upanishads | The word "upanishad" literally means "a sitting in front of," and it refers to the practice of disciples gathering before a sage for discussion of religious issues. The Upanishads often took the form of dialogues that explored the Vedas and the religious issues that they raised. |  | 79 |
| 2812453999 | Brahman, the Universal Soul | Each person participates in a larger cosmic order and forms a small part of a universal soul, known as Brahman. Brahman is an eternal, unchanging, permanent foundation for all things that exist; hence the only genuine reality. The highest goal of the individual soul, however, was to escape this cycle of birth and rebirth and enter into permanent union with Brahman. |  | 80 |
| 2812454345 | Teachings of the Upanishads | The Upanishads developed several specific doctrines that helped to explain this line of thought. The authors of the Upanishads sought to escape the cycle altogether and attain the state of moksha, which they characterized as a deep, dreamless sleep that came with permanent liberation from physical incarnation. |  | 81 |
| 2812457320 | The Yellow River | The Yellow River is boisterous and unpredictable. It rises in the mountains bordering the high plateau of Tibet, and it courses almost 4,700 kilometers before emptying into the Yellow Sea. It takes its name, Huang He, meaning Yellow River, from the vast quantities of light colored loess soil that it picks up along its route. |  | 82 |
| 2812458177 | Yangshao Society and Banpo Village | Yangshoo society, which flourished from about 5000 to 3000 B.C.E., in the middle region of the Yellow River valley, is especially well known from the discovery in 1952 of an entire neolithic village at Banpo, near modern Xi'an. Excavations at Banpo unearthed a large quantity of fine painted pottery and bone tools used by early cultivators. |  | 83 |
| 2812458178 | The Xia Dynasty | Archaeologist discoveries have suggested that the Xia dynasty made one of the first efforts to organize public life in China on a large scale. The Xia was certainly one of the more vigorous states of its time. The dynasty encouraged the founding of cities and the development of metallurgy, since the ruling classes needed administrative centers and bronze weapons to maintain their control. |  | 84 |
| 2812459071 | Shang Political Organization | Shang rulers relied on a large corps of political allies. The Shang state rested on a vast network of walled towns whose local rulers recognized the authority of the Shang kings. Shang society revolved around several large cities. The Shang capital moved six times during the course of the dynasty. |  | 85 |
| 2812461079 | The Shang Capital at Ao | The Shang named one of its earliest capitals of Ao, and archaeologists have found its remains near modern Zhengzhou. The most remarkable feature of this site is the city wall. The wall consisted of layer upon layer of pounded earth, soil packed firmly between wooden forms and then pounded with mallets until it reached rocklike hardness before the addition of a new layer of soil on top. |  | 86 |
| 2812461475 | The Shang Capital at Yin | Archaeologists working at Yin have identified a complex of royal palaces, archives with written documents, several residential neighborhoods, two large bronze boundaries, several workshops, used by potters, woodworkers, bone carvers, and other craftsmen, and scattered burial groups. |  | 87 |
| 2812464384 | The Rise of the Zhou | According to Zhou accounts, the last Shang king was a criminal fool who gave himself over to wine, women, tyranny, and greed. As a result, many of the towns and political districts subject to the Shang transferred their loyalties to the Zhou. After several unsuccessful attempts to discipline to the Shang king, Zhou forces toppled his government in 1122 B.C.E. and replaced it with their own state. |  | 88 |
| 2812464385 | The Mandate of Heaven | Heavenly powers granted the right to govern the mandate of heaven to the son of heaven. The ruler then served as a link between heaven and earth. He had the duty to govern conscientiously, observe high standards of honor and justice, and maintain order and harmony within his realm. |  | 89 |
| 2812465423 | Weakening of the Zhou | Despite their best efforts, however, the Zhou kings could not maintain control indefinitely over this decentralized political system. Subordinates gradually established their own bases of power, they ruled their territories not only as allies of the Zhou kings but also as long established and traditional governors. |  | 90 |
| 2812465733 | Ruling Elites | Ruling elites possessed much of the bronze weaponry that ensured military strength and political hegemony, and through their subordinates and retainers they controlled most of the remaining bronze weapons available in northern China. They also supplied their households with cast bronze utensils which were beyond the means of less privileged people. |  | 91 |
| 2812466938 | Merchants and Trade | There is very little information about merchants and trade in ancient China until the latter part of the Zhou dynasty, but archaeologist discoveries show that long distance trade routes reached China during Shang and probably Xia times as well. Identity of the most important trade items are not clear, but archaeologists have unearthed a few pieces of Shang pottery. |  | 92 |
| 2812466939 | Peasants | A large class of semiservile peasants populated the Chinese countryside. They owned no land but provided agricultural, military, and labor services for their lords in exchange for plots to cultivate, security, and a portion of the harvest. They lived like their neolithic predecessors in small subterranean houses excavated to a depth of about one meter and protected from the elements by thatched walls and roofs. |  | 93 |
| 2812467599 | Veneration of Ancestors | A practice with roots in neolithic times. People believed that the spirits of their ancestors passed into another realm of existence from which they had the power to support and protect their surviving families if the descendants displayed proper respect and ministered to the spirit's needs. Survivors buried tools, weapons, jewelry, and other material goods along with their dead. |  | 94 |
| 2812467942 | Oracle Bones | Oracle bones were the principal instruments used by fortune tellers in ancient China. In China, diviners used specially prepared broad bones, such as the shoulder blades of sheep or turtle shells. They inscribed a question on the bone and then subjected it to heat, either by placing it into a fire or by scorching it with an extremely hot tool. When heated, the bone developed networks of splits and cracks. The fortune teller then studied the patterns and determined the answer inscribed on the bone. |  | 95 |
| 2812467943 | Zhou Literature | Several writings of the Zhou dynasty won recognition as works of high authority, and they exercised deep influence because they served as textbooks of Chinese schools. Among the most popular of these works in ancient times was the Book of Changes, which was a manual instructing diviners in the art of foretelling the future. |  | 96 |
| 2812468556 | The Book of Songs | A collection of verses on themes both light and serious. Many of the 311 poems in the collection date from a much earlier period and reflect conditions of the early Zhou dynasty. Many of the poems are charming verses about life, love, family, friendship, eating, drinking, work, play, nature, and daily life that offer reflections on human affairs without particular concern for political or social conditions. |  | 97 |
| 2812469044 | Destruction of Chinese Literature | The Book of Songs and other writings of the Zhou dynasty offer only a small sample of China's earliest literary tradition, for most of Zhou writings have perished. Records indicate that the tomb of one Zhou king contained hundreds of books written on bamboo strips, but none of them survive. |  | 98 |
| 2812469045 | Nomadic Society | Nomadic peoples did little farming, since the arid steppe did not reward efforts at cultivation. Nomads concentrated on herding their animals, driving them to regions where they could find food and water. |  | 99 |
