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| 8563875912 | Dehydration | connecting monomers together by the removal of water |  | 0 |
| 8563875913 | Hydrolysis | disassembling polymers by the addition of water |  | 1 |
| 8563875914 | Disaccharides | glucose + glucose = maltose / glucose + fructose = sucrose / glucose + galactose = lactose |  | 2 |
| 8563875915 | Polysaccharides | Plants: starch (energy) and cellulose (structure) Animals: glycogen (energy) and chitin (structure) |  | 3 |
| 8563875916 | *Lipids | hydrophobic (very non-polar), consist of long hydrocarbon chains | 4 | |
| 8563875917 | Fats | consist of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, store long term energy, saturated = no double bond in hydrocarbon tails (no kink), unsaturated = double bond (kink) |  | 5 |
| 8563875918 | Phospholipids | consist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic |  | 6 |
| 8563875919 | Protein structure and organization | composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular) |  | 7 |
| 8563875920 | Protein functions (8) | 1) enzymes 2) antibodies 3) storage proteins 4) transport proteins 5) hormones 6) receptor proteins 7) motor proteins 8) structural proteins | 8 | |
| 8563875921 | *Nucleic Acids | DNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins | 9 | |
| 8563875922 | Nuclear Envelope | double membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER |  | 10 |
| 8563875923 | Chromatin | uncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division | 11 | |
| 8563875924 | Nucleolus | nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these |  | 12 |
| 8563875925 | Rough ER | covered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes |  | 13 |
| 8563875926 | Smooth ER | metabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons) | 14 | |
| 8563875927 | Golgi | stores, transports, and secretes cell products |  | 15 |
| 8563875928 | Cytoskeleton | supports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products | 16 | |
| 8563875929 | Centrosomes (2 centrioles) | only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division |  | 17 |
| 8563875930 | Lysosomes | only in animal cells, digestive organelles |  | 18 |
| 8563875931 | Flagella | only in animal cells, cluster of microtubules for motility |  | 19 |
| 8563875932 | Extracellular Matrix | only in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell |  | 20 |
| 8563875933 | Central Vacuole | only in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells) | 21 | |
| 8563875934 | Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic | nucleoid / nucleus; only ribosomes / complex membrane-bound organelles; both have same genetic coding, sugars, and amino acids | 22 | |
| 8563875935 | Phospholipid Bilayer | tails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied | 23 | |
| 8563875936 | Passive trasport | movement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins) | 24 | |
| 8563875937 | Active transport | movement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis) | 25 | |
| 8563875938 | Membrane Potential | voltage across a membrane due to difference in positive and negative ions, electrons move from high to low concentration (ex. sodium-potassium pumps in neurons) |  | 26 |
| 8563875939 | Electrochemical Gradient | diffusion gradient resulting in combination of membrane potential and concentration gradient | 27 | |
| 8563875940 | Hypertonic | solution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed |  | 28 |
| 8563875941 | Hypotonic | solution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid |  | 29 |
| 8563875942 | Isotonic | equal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid |  | 30 |
| 8563875943 | When ΔG is negative... | ...the reaction is exergonic (loss of free energy). | 31 | |
| 8563875944 | When ΔG is positive... | ...the reaction is endergonic (gain of free energy). | 32 | |
| 8563875945 | *Enzymes | proteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over | 33 | |
| 8563875946 | Substrate | the substance that an enzyme acts upon | 34 | |
| 8563875947 | Active Site | region of enzyme that binds to the substrate | 35 | |
| 8563875948 | Induced fit | change in the shape of an enzyme's active site induced by the substrate, helps to break down the substrate | 36 | |
| 8563875949 | The higher the substrate concentration... | ...the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated. |  | 37 |
| 8563875950 | Denaturation | the unraveling of an enzyme due to high temperatures or incompatible pH | 38 | |
| 8563875951 | Cofactors | nonprotein molecules that are required for proper enzyme function, cofactors made of organic molecules are called coenzymes |  | 39 |
| 8563875952 | Enzyme inhibition may be irreversible if... | ...the inhibitor attaches by covalent bonds (poisons, toxins) | 40 | |
| 8563875953 | Competitive Inhibitors | resemble a substrate and block enzymes' active sites, can be overcome with higher concentration of substrate |  | 41 |
| 8563875954 | Noncompetitive Inhibitors | bind to a portion of the enzyme and change the shape of the active site so that it cannot match with substrates, used for regulating metabolic reactions |  | 42 |
| 8563875955 | Feedback Inhibition | the product of a metabolic pathway switches off the enzyme that created it earlier in the process |  | 43 |
| 8563875956 | Oxidation | loss of electrons (OIL) | 44 | |
| 8563875957 | Reduction | gain of electrons (RIG) | 45 | |
| 8563875958 | Oxidative Phosphorylation | ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen | 46 | |
| 8563875959 | Electron Acceptors | Cellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2) Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH) | 47 | |
| 8563875960 | Glycolysis | Input: glucose, 2 ATP Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH |  | 48 |
| 8563875961 | Conversion Reaction before Kreb's | Input: 2 pyruvate Output: 2 acetyl (w/ CoA), 2 NADH, 2 CO2 |  | 49 |
| 8563875962 | Krebs Cycle | Input: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle) |  | 50 |
| 8563875963 | Electron Transport Chain | Input: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-) Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O |  | 51 |
| 8563875964 | Alcohol Fermentation | Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2) |  | 52 |
| 8563875965 | Lactic Acid Fermentation | Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2) |  | 53 |
| 8563875966 | Photosynthetic Equation |  | 54 | |
| 8563875967 | Chloroplast structure | Exciting chlorophyll: chlorophyll in thylakoids absorb light, which excites electrons to produce potential energy |  | 55 |
| 8563875968 | Light Reactions | Input: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+ Output: O2, ATP, NADPH |  | 56 |
| 8563875969 | Calvin Cycle | Input: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose |  | 57 |
| 8563875970 | Watson and Crick | built the first accurate 3D DNA model | 58 | |
| 8563875971 | Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strand | works toward replication fork / works away from replication fork; both always move in the 5' ➝ 3' direction | 59 | |
| 8563875972 | Steps of DNA Replication | 1) helicase separates the DNA strands 2) SSB proteins prevent DNA from reanneling 3) primase creates RNA primer 4) DNA polymerase extends DNA strand from the primer 5) DNA polymerase I (RNase H) removes the primers 6) ligase joins the okazaki fragments of the lagging strand |  | 60 |
| 8563875973 | 3 types of RNA | 1) mRNA messenger 2) tRNA transfer amino acids (20 kinds) 3) rRNA ribosomes | 61 | |
| 8563875974 | Transcription | 1) Initiation: promoter site (TATA) is recognized 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the 5' ➝ 3' direction 3) Termination: RNA strand separates, RNA polymerase recognizes termination sequence (AAUAAA) |  | 62 |
| 8563875975 | RNA processing/splicing | splicesomes remove introns and put together exons, 5' cap and PolyA tail are added |  | 63 |
| 8563875976 | Codon vs. Anticodon | codon = nucleotide sequence on mRNA anticodon = nucleotide sequence on tRNA | 64 | |
| 8563875977 | Translation | 1) Initiation: 5' cap attaches to ribosome which accepts an initiator tRNA at the P site (*AUG will always be 1st codon) 2) Elongation: codon/anticodon recognition and formation of peptide bond between A site amino acid and P site amino acid chain 3) translocation of the ribosome down the mRNA strand 4) Termination: ribosome will recognize stop codon and release the protein |  | 65 |
| 8563875978 | DNA mutations | base-pair substitution; insertion/deletion; frameshift: 1) missense = different protein 2) nonsense = codes for a stop signal prematurely 3) silent = no harmful change | 66 | |
| 8563875979 | Prokaryotic cell division | binary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation | 67 | |
| 8563875980 | Somatic cell vs. Gamete | any body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg) | 68 | |
| 8563875981 | Interphase | (90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis | 69 | |
| 8563875982 | Mitosis | 1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense |  | 70 |
| 8563875983 | Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks) | a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase |  | 71 |
| 8563875984 | Meiosis I | 1) Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair up and synapsis occurs, crossing over segments of the chromosomes (chiasma) to create more genetic variation 2) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equator 3) Anaphase: homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. 4) Telophase I... |  | 72 |
| 8563875985 | Meiosis II | Prophase II - Telophase II act exactly like mitosis except that the resultant number of daughter cells is 4 instead of 2, each with their own unique combination of genetic information |  | 73 |
| 8563875986 | 4 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation | 1) Mutation 2) Independent Assortment: homologous chromosomes align randomly on one side of the equator or another 3) Crossing Over 4) Random Fertilization: a zygote can be any combination of a sperm and egg (64 trillion different combinations in humans) | 74 | |
| 8563876011 | Repressible Operon | trp operon - usually on, can be repressed. Repressor protein produced in inactive shape |  | 75 |
| 8563876012 | Inducible Operon | lac operon - usually off, can be turned on. Repressor protein produced in active shape. |  | 76 |
| 8563876013 | cAMP and CAP regulated Operon | when CAP is inactive, transcription continues at a much less efficient rate even in the presence of lactose |  | 77 |
| 8563876015 | Histone Methylation | the condensing of chromatin structure (heterochromatin), prevents transcription | 78 | |
| 8563876016 | Transcription Factors and Enhancers | RNA polymerase requires the assistance of transcription factor proteins and enhancers or activators to successfully transcribe RNA | 79 | |
| 8563876017 | Epigenetic Inheritance | inheritance of traits not directly related to nucleotide sequence (ex. diet and environment contribute to characteristics without changing DNA sequence) | 80 | |
| 8563876056 | Plasmids | a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome |  | 81 |
| 8563876057 | Recombinant DNA | a DNA vector made in vitro with segments from different sources |  | 82 |
| 8563876058 | Restriction Enzyme | an enzyme that recognizes and cuts DNA molecules at specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites), can then be used to create recombinant DNA |  | 83 |
| 8563876059 | Gel Electrophoresis | analyzing fragments of DNA (RFLPs) by their length and charge to determine genetic fingerprints and other genetic information |  | 84 |
