APES Chapter 8 Review
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| 8209848661 | 4.6 billion years ago | when the earth was formed -cosmic dust cloud -heavier metals towards earth's center (iron) -lighter (silica) | 0 | |
| 8209848662 | core | the innermost zone -over 3,000 km (1860 miles) below Earth's surface -dense mass largely made of nickel and iron -inner:solid -outer:liquid | 1 | |
| 8209848663 | mantle | above the core -contains molten rock (magma) that slowly circulates in convection cells | 2 | |
| 8209848664 | magma | the molten rock in the mantle that slowly circulates in convection cells | 3 | |
| 8209848665 | asthenosphere | -located in the outer part of the mantle -composed of semi-molten, ductile (flexible) rock | 4 | |
| 8209848666 | lithosphere | the brittle outermost layer of the planet -aprox. 100 km (60 miles) thick -includes upper mantle and crust -made up of large plates that overlie the convection cells in the asthenosphere | 5 | |
| 8209848667 | crust | the chemically distinct outermost layer of the lithosphere | 6 | |
| 8209848668 | tectonic cycle, rock cycle, soil formation | the three major cycles that composes the earth's geologic cycle | 7 | |
| 8209848669 | hot spots | -places where molten material from the mantle reaches the lithosphere -produced by the plumes of hot magma welling upward from the mantle caused by heat from radioactive decay of various isotopes (potass.uran.thorium) | 8 | |
| 8209848670 | pangaea | the single landmass believed to have existed -alfred wegener (german) -1912 -same rock formations on both sides of the atlantic -fossil evidence | 9 | |
| 8209848671 | theory of plate tectonics | states that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into plates, most of which are in constant motion | 10 | |
| 8209848672 | tectonic cycle | the sum of the processes that build up and break down the lithosphere | 11 | |
| 8209848673 | oceanic plates | plates that lie beneath the oceans (lithosphere) -crusts are dense and rich in iron | 12 | |
| 8209848674 | continental plates | plates that lie beneath landmasses (lithosphere) -crusts contain more silicon dioxide (less dense than iron) -lighter than oceanic, move above them | 13 | |
| 8209848675 | seafloor spreading | as oceanic plates move apart, rising magma forms new oceanic crust on the seafloor at the boundaries bw those plates -new rock formed -creates new lithosphere and brings important elements (copper lead silver) to the earth's surface -where oceanic meet continental, old oceanic is pulled downward, beneath continental lithosphere -heavier oceanic plate below light continental plate | 14 | |
| 8209848676 | subduction | -process of one plate passing under another -where oceanic meet continental, old oceanic is pulled downward, beneath continental lithosphere -heavier oceanic plate below light continental plate | 15 | |
| 8209848677 | geologic time scale | how earth's history is measured | 16 | |
| 8209848678 | volcano | -a vent in Earth's surface that emits ash, gases, and molten lava -natural source of carbon dioxide particulates and metals -formed as a plate moves over a geologic hot spot, heat from rising mantle plume melts the crust -after plates move past hot spots, leave a trail of extinct volcanic islands -85% occur along plate boundaries | 17 | |
| 8209848679 | divergent plate boundaries | beneath the ocean, plates move away from each other -conveyor belt -seafloor spreading | 18 | |
| 8209848680 | convergent plate boundary | form where plates move toward one another and collide -subduction of the heavier plate (forms long narrow coastal mountain ranges, Andes SA) | 19 | |
| 8209848681 | transform fault boundary | when plates move sideways past each other -most move at fingernail rate: 36 mm, 1.4 inches per year 2 plates under the Atlantic have spread and come together twice over 500 mill years | 20 | |
| 8209848682 | divergent plate, convergent plate, transform fault | the zones of plate contact can be classified into three types of boundaries | 21 | |
| 8209848683 | fault | a fracture in rock across which there is movement | 22 | |
| 8209848684 | fault zones | large expanses of rock where movement has occurred -also called areas of seismic activity -form in the brittle upper lithosphere where two plates meet -rock near plate margins becomes deformed/fractured from immense pressures exerted by plate movement -rocks along it are jagged and resist movement, eventually pressure overcomes it and the plates give way, slipping =earthquake | 23 | |
| 8209848685 | earthquakes | occur when the rocks of the lithosphere rupture unexpectedly along a fault -plates can move up to several meters in few secs common in fault zones | 24 | |
| 8209848686 | epicenter | of an earthquake, the exact point on the surface of Earth directly above the location where the rock ruptures | 25 | |
| 8209848687 | richter scale | reports the magnitude of an earthquake -measure of the largest ground movement that occurs during an earthquake -logarithmic 8.0 occurs approx. once every 10 years 800000 small quakes of mag 2.0 or less per year | 26 | |
| 8209848688 | mag 5.0-5.9 | moderate earthquakes | 27 | |
| 8209848689 | rock cycle | the constant formation and destruction of rock -second part of geologic cycle 1)rock forms when magma from Earth's interior reaches the surface, cools, and hardens 2)weathering and erosion breaks rock masses up, moves them and deposits them to new locations *new rocks may be formed 3)rock is subducted into the mantle, melting and becoming magma again | 28 | |
| 8209848690 | rock | substance of the lithosphere -composed of one or more minerals | 29 | |
| 8209848691 | minerals | solid chemical substances with uniform (often crystalline) structures that form under specific temps and pressures -usually composed, some single (gold+silver) | 30 | |
| 8209848692 | igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic | 3 modes of formation for rocks form 3 rock types | 31 | |
| 8209848693 | igneous rocks | rocks that form directly from magma chemical comp: basaltic, granitic mode of formation: intrusive or extrusive | 32 | |
| 8209848694 | basaltic rocks | (igneous): dark-colored rock that contains minerals with high concentrations of iron, magnesium, and calcium | 33 | |
| 8209848695 | granitic rocks | (igneous): lighter-colored rock made up of the minerals feldspar, mica, quartz (contain elements silicon, alum. potass. and calcium) -dominant rock type in continental plates -when broken down (weathering): sand -soils formed from it are generally more permeable | 34 | |
| 8209848696 | intrusive igneous rocks | igneous rocks that form within Earth as magma rises up and cools in place underground | 35 | |
| 8209848697 | extrusive igneous rocks | igneous rocks that form when magma cools above Earth's surface, ejected by volcano or released by seafloor spreading -cool rapidly, minerals have little time to expand into large indiv. crystals -fine grained rock types: obsidian | 36 | |
| 8209848698 | fractures | the cracks that occur when rock cools and is subject to stresses that cause it to break | 37 | |
| 8209848699 | veins | the concentrated deposits formed by the precipitated metals from the fractures when water from the E's surface runs through fractures and dissolves valuable metals | 38 | |
| 8209848700 | sedimentary rocks | rocks that form when sediments (muds, sands, gravels) are compressed by overlying sediments -occurs over long periods -hold fossil record | 39 | |
| 8209848701 | metamorphic rock | rocks that form when sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks, or other metamorphic rocks are subjected to high temps and pressures -slate, marble, anthracite (coal) -good for building (strong, attractive) | 40 | |
| 8209848702 | weathering | physical or chemical -occurs when rock is exposed to air, water, certain chems compounds, or biological agents (plant roots, lichens and burrowing animals ) | 41 | |
| 8209848703 | physical weathering | the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals -caused by wind, water, variations in temps, plant roots, burrowing animals -coarse grained (slow cooling) weather more than fine grained (rapid cooling) -exposes more surface area, making it more vulnerable to further degradation -inc. rate of chem | 42 | |
| 8209848704 | chemical weathering | the breakdown of rocks and minerals by chem. reactions, the dissolving of chem elements from rocks, or both -releases essential nutrients from rocks for plants and orgs -most important on newly exposed minerals (primary minerals) -alters primary to form secondary minerals + ionic forms of constituent chem elements -rocks that contain compounds that dissolve easily (calcium carb.) weather quickly | 43 | |
| 8209848705 | acid precipitation (acid rain) | -sulfur dioxide from sulfur in the atm (human ff combustion). combined with oxygen -resp. for rapid degradation of old statues, gravestones, limestone, and marble -can create chemical weathering | 44 | |
| 8209848706 | erosion | the physical removal of rock fragments (sediment, soil, rock, and other particles) from a landscape or ecosystem -wind, water, ice transport soil + other earth materials through downward slope -living orgs burrowing -natural process, but can be done by humans | 45 | |
| 8209848707 | deposition | the accumulation or depositing of eroded material (sediment, rock frags, soil) | 46 | |
| 8209848708 | soil | a mix of geologic and organic components -result of phys and chem weathering + gradual accumulation of detritus from the biosphere -forms dynamic membrane over earth's surface -medium for plant growth -water filter -habitat, biodiversity contributor -* best agric: mixture of sand, silt, and clay | 47 | |
| 8209848709 | soil formation | 3rd part of the geologic cycle, on earth's surface | 48 | |
| 8209848710 | parent material, climate, topography, organisms, time | 5 factors that determine the properties of soil | 49 | |
| 8209848711 | soil's parent material | the rock material underlying the soil from which its inorganic compounds are derived quart sand: nutrient poor soil, Atl. coast of US calcium carbonate: high pH and abundant supply of calcium, high productivity | 50 | |
| 8209848712 | climate | colder, worse at decomposing and moving water -high latitudes of N. Hem composed of org. material in an undecomposed state -fast soil devel. in tropical climates | 51 | |
| 8209848713 | topography | the surface slope and arrangement of a landscape -steep slopes: erosion -bottoms of steep slopes: accumulate material + deeper | 52 | |
| 8209848714 | organisms (soil) | plants: remove nutrients from soil and excrete organic acids animals: burrow and mix, distibute organic and mineral matter humans | 53 | |
| 8209848715 | time (soil) | older the soil, the more | 54 | |
| 8209848716 | soil horizons | the layers of soils formed as they develop -composition depends on parent material, climate, and veg. | 55 | |
| 8209848717 | o horizon | -organic horizon -surface of soil w/ organic detritus -most pronounced in forest soils and in some grasslands | 56 | |
| 8209848718 | a horizon/topsoil | the top layer in a soil that is mixed -the zone of organic material and minerals that have been mixed together | 57 | |
| 8209848719 | e horizon | -forms in some acidic soils -the zone of leaching (eluviation) under the O horizon, or less often, the A horizon -always above the B horizon -transported materials (iron, alum, and organic dissolved acids), transported through and removed from the E horizon and then deposited in the B horizon | 58 | |
| 8209848720 | b horizon (subsoil) | -all soils have this horizon -composed primarily of mineral material with very little organic matter -if soil has nutients, they will be in this horizon | 59 | |
| 8209848721 | c horizon | the least weathered soil horizon, always occurs beneath the B horizon -similar to the parent material of the soil | 60 | |
| 8209848722 | texture | (of soil) determined by the percentages of sand, silt, and clay the soil contains | 61 | |
| 8209848723 | permeability | (of soil) how quickly soil drains -depends on texture -sand: high, quick to drain and quick to dry, easy for roots of plants to penetrate -clay: packed tightly together, low, -silt: intermediate in size and ability to drain or retain water | 62 | |
| 8209848724 | clay particles | -contribute the most to the chemical prop of soil b/c they have the ability to attract positively charged mineral ions (cations) -have a negative electrical charge, cations are absorbed (held on the surface) by the particles -cations can be subsequently released from the particles and used as nutrients by plants | 63 | |
| 8209848725 | cations | positively charged mineral ions | 64 | |
| 8209848726 | cation exchange capacity (CEC) | (the nutrient holding capacity) -the ability of a particular soil to absorb and release cations -a function of the types of clay particles present -high: provide essential cations to plants -more than 20% clay, high water retention, waterlogged soils | 65 | |
| 8209848727 | soil bases | calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium | 66 | |
| 8209848728 | soil acids | aluminum, hydrogen | 67 | |
| 8209848729 | base saturation | a measure of the proportion of soil bases to soil acids, expressed as a percentage ?p. 225 | 68 | |
| 8209848730 | fungi, bacteria, protozoans | 3 groups of organisms that account for about 80-90% of biological activity in soils -majority are detritivores (consume dead plant and animal tissues and recycle the nutrients they contain | 69 | |
| 8209848731 | soil degradation | the loss of some or all of the ability of soils to support plant growth -caused by soil erosion (topsoil disturbance) -compaction of soil | 70 | |
| 8209848732 | crustal abundance | the average concentration of an element in the crust | 71 | |
| 8209848733 | oxygen, silicon, aluminum, and iron | 4 elements that constitute over 88% of the crust | 72 | |
| 8209848734 | ores | concentrated accumulations of minerals from which economically valuable materials can be extracted -typc. characterized by the presence of valuable metals, but sand can also be considered to be them | 73 | |
| 8209848735 | metals | elements with properties that allow them to conduct electricity and heat energy and perform other important functions -copper, nickel, alum. | 74 | |
| 8209848736 | disseminated deposits | ores that occur in much larger areas of rock, often in lower concentrations | 75 | |
| 8209848737 | concentrated deposits | deposits that occur as a result of their chemical or physical separation from other materials by water, in conjunction with the tectonic and rock cycles -nonmetallic mineral resources (clay, sand, salt, limestone, phosphate | 76 | |
| 8209848738 | reserve | the known quantity of the resource that can be economically recovered | 77 | |
| 8209848739 | strip mining, open-pit mining, mountaintop removal, placer mining | surface mining | 78 | |
| 8209848740 | strip mining | type of surface mining -the removal of "strips" of soil and rock to expose ore, used when the desired ore is relatively close to Earth's surface and runs parallel to it (sedim. materials, coal, sand) -miners remove a large volume of material, extract the resource, and return the unwanted waste material to the hole created during mining | 79 | |
| 8209848741 | mining spoils/tailings | the unwanted waste material during mining | 80 | |
| 8209848742 | open-pit mining | the create of a large pit or hole in the ground that is visible from Earth's surface -used when the resource is close to the surface but extends beneath the surface both horizontally and vertically -copper mines | 81 | |
| 8209848743 | mountaintop removal | miners remove the entire top of a mountain with explosives -coal | 82 | |
| 8209848744 | placer mining | the process of looking for metals and precious stones in river sediments -use river water to separate heavier items | 83 | |
| 8209848745 | subsurface mining | -when the desired resource is more than 100 m (328 ft) below Earth's surface -begins w/ a horizontal tunnel in the mountain side -vertical shafts are drilled, elevators -deepest: 3.5 km (2.2 miles) deep -coal, diamonds, gold | 84 | |
| 8209848746 | 11000 | bw 1900 and 2006 coal miner deaths in US to fires and explosions | 85 | |
| 8209848747 | mining law of 1872 (general mining act) | act that regulated the mining of silver, copper and gold ore, as well as fuels, natr. gas and oil, on fed lands | 86 | |
| 8209848748 | surface mining control and reclamation act (1977) | act that regulated surface mining of coal and the surface effects of subsurface coal mining -land should be minimally disturbed and reclaimed after mining is completed | 87 |
