Terms from APES for the exam
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| 13865413320 | First Law of Thermodynamics | Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another. | 0 | |
| 13865413385 | El Niño (ENSO) | prevailing winds in the Pacific weaken and change direction every few years which results in above average warming of eastern Pacific waters, which changes distribution of plant nutrients and alters earth's weather for 2-3 years | 1 | |
| 13865413386 | Reason for seasons on Earth | Tilt of the axis ~23.5° | 2 | |
| 13865413321 | Second Law of Thermodynamics | When energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat). | 3 | |
| 13865413322 | Nuclear Fission | nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons. | 4 | |
| 13865413323 | Leaching | removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards through soil. | 5 | |
| 13865413324 | Soil Conservation Methods | conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour plowing, organic fertilizers. | 6 | |
| 13865413325 | Soil Salinization | in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind. (ex. Fertile crescent, southwestern US) | 7 | |
| 13865413326 | Hydrologic Cycle Components | evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, and infiltration. | 8 | |
| 13865413387 | Watershed | all of the land that drains into a body of water | 9 | |
| 13865413327 | Aquifer | any water-bearing layer in the ground. | 10 | |
| 13865413328 | Salt Water Intrusion | near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer. | 11 | |
| 13865413329 | La Nina | "Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America. | 12 | |
| 13865413330 | Nitrogen Fixation | because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants, it must first be converted into ammonia by bacteria. | 13 | |
| 13865413388 | Ammonification | decomposers covert organic waste into ammonia. | 14 | |
| 13865413331 | Nitrification | ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO -). | 15 | |
| 13865413332 | Assimilation | inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins. | 16 | |
| 13865413333 | Denitrification | bacteria convert ammonia back into N. | 17 | |
| 13865413334 | Phosphorus | does not exist as a gas; released by weathering of phosphate rocks, it is a major limiting factor for plant growth. Phosphorus cycle is slow, and not atmospheric. | 18 | |
| 13865413474 | Soil Profile |  | 19 | |
| 13865413335 | Photosynthesis | plants convert CO2 (atmospheric C) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6). | 20 | |
| 13865413336 | Aerobic Respiration | oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2. | 21 | |
| 13865413337 | Biotic | living components of an ecosystem. | 22 | |
| 13865413389 | Abiotic | nonliving components of an ecosystem | 23 | |
| 13865413338 | Producer/Autotroph | organisms that make their own food—photosynthetic life. | 24 | |
| 13865413339 | Trophic Levels | producers → primary consumer → secondary consumer → tertiary consumer. | 25 | |
| 13865413340 | Energy Flow through Food Webs | 10% of the usable energy is transferred to the next trophic level. Reason: usable energy lost as heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey. | 26 | |
| 13865413341 | Primary succession | development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life (ex. lava). | 27 | |
| 13865413390 | Secondary succession | life progresses where soil remains (ex. clear-cut forest, old farm). | 28 | |
| 13865413342 | Mutualism | symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit (e.g. clownfish and anemone) | 29 | |
| 13865413343 | Commensalism | symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits & the other is unaffected (e.g. epiphytic plants, such as many orchids, that grow on trees) | 30 | |
| 13865413344 | Parasitism | relationship in which one organism (the parasite) obtains nutrients at the expense of the host (e.g. mosquitoes and humans) | 31 | |
| 13865413345 | Carrying Capacity | the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area. | 32 | |
| 13865413346 | r-strategist | reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce early, bear many small, unprotected offspring (ex. insects, mice). | 33 | |
| 13865413347 | K-strategist | reproductive strategy in which organisms reproduce late, bear few, cared for offspring (ex. humans, elephants). | 34 | |
| 13865413348 | Natural Selection | organisms that possess favorable adaptations (through mutations) pass them onto the next generation. | 35 | |
| 13865413349 | Thomas Malthus | The human population is kept in check by war, famine & disease. Did not foresee technological advancements like medicine. | 36 | |
| 13865413350 | Doubling Time | (rule of 70) doubling time equals 70 divided by average growth rate. (ex. a population growing at 5% annually doubles in 70 ÷ 5 = 14 years) | 37 | |
| 13865413351 | Replacement Level Fertility | the number of children a couple must bear to replace themselves (2.1 developed, 2.7 developing). | 38 | |
| 13865413352 | World Population | slightly over 7.4 billion. | 39 | |
| 13865413391 | Demographic Transition Model | preindustrial, transitional, industrial, and postindustrial stages |  | 40 |
| 13865413353 | Preindustrial stage | birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high. | 41 | |
| 13865413354 | Transitional stage | Aid from other countries and increase in industrialization lowers death rates (infant mortality). Birth rates high (from of the amount of people in the reproductive stage). | 42 | |
| 13865413392 | Industrial stage | decline in birth rate, population growth slows. | 43 | |
| 13865413355 | Postindustrial stage | low birth & death rates. | 44 | |
| 13865413356 | Age Structure Diagrams | broad base → rapid growth; narrow base → negative growth (NPG); uniform shape → zero growth (ZPG) |  | 45 |
| 13865413393 | Most populous nations | 1)China 2)India 3)US 4)Indonesia | 46 | |
| 13865413357 | Low Economic/Social Status of Women | Most important factor keeping population growth rates high. | 47 | |
| 13865413358 | Methods to Decrease Birth Rates | Family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penalties. | 48 | |
| 13865413359 | Composition of Water on Earth | 97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater. 0.023% readily available freshwater for use. | 49 | |
| 13865413394 | Aquaculture | farming aquatic species, commonly salmon, shrimp, tilapia, oysters. | 50 | |
| 13865413360 | Point Source | from specific location such as pipe or smokestack | 51 | |
| 13865413361 | Non-Point Source | from over an area such as agricultural (farm) runoff, traffic. | 52 | |
| 13865413362 | Eutrophication | rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrogen & phosphorus. | 53 | |
| 13865413363 | Keystone Species | species whose role in an ecosystem is important for the ecosystem's stability (manatee, alligator, sea otter, etc). Impact outweighs relative abundance | 54 | |
| 13865413364 | Indicator Species | species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged (amphibians). | 55 | |
| 13865413365 | Pesticide Cons | genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, and biological magnification. | 56 | |
| 13865413395 | Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) | new organisms created by altering the genetic material (DNA) of existing organisms; usually in an attempt to remove undesirable or create desirable characteristics in the new organism. | 57 | |
| 13865413396 | Electricity Generation | steam, from water boiled by fossils fuels or nuclear energy, or falling water is used to turn a turbine and generate a generator. | 58 | |
| 13865413397 | Coal Formation | prehistoric plants buried undecomposed in oxygen-depleted water of swamps/bogs converted by heat and pressure. | 59 | |
| 13865413366 | Nuclear Reactor | consists of a core, control rods, moderator, steam generator, turbine, containment building. | 60 | |
| 13865413398 | Alternate Energy Sources | wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells | 61 | |
| 13865413399 | Troposphere | first layer of atmosphere 0-10 miles above the Earth's surface. Contains weather, greenhouse gases (bad ozone) | 62 | |
| 13865413400 | Stratosphere | second layer of atmosphere 10-30 miles above the Earth's surface. Contains protective ozone layer (good ozone) | 63 | |
| 13865413401 | Temperature Inversion | a warm layer of air above a cooler layer traps pollutants close to the Earth's surface. | 64 | |
| 13865413402 | Divergent plate boundaries | tectonic plates spreading apart, new crust being formed (Mid Ocean Ridge) | 65 | |
| 13865413403 | Convergent plate boundaries | tectonic plates with the oldest crustal material on Earth moving together, one moving under another. Mineral deposits and volcanoes are most abundant at convergent plate boundaries (Volcanic arc like Japan) | 66 | |
| 13865413404 | Transform Fault | tectonic plates sliding past one another (San Andreas Fault Line) | 67 | |
| 13865413405 | Most Endangered species | have a small range, require large territory, have long generations, have very specialized niche, or live on an island | 68 | |
| 13865413367 | Biome | large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals. | 69 | |
| 13865413368 | Tropical Rain Forests | characterized by the greatest diversity of species, believed to include many undiscovered species. Occur near the equator. Soils tend to be low in nutrients. Distinct seasonality: winter is absent, and only two seasons are present (rainy and dry). | 70 | |
| 13865413369 | Temperate Forests | occur in eastern North America, Japan, northeastern Asia, and western and central Europe. Dominated by tall deciduous trees. Well-defined seasons include a distinct winter. Logged extensively, only scattered remnants of original temperate forests remain. | 71 | |
| 13865413370 | Boreal Forests or Taiga | represent the largest terrestrial biome. Dominated by needleleaf, coniferous trees. Found in the cold climates of Eurasia and North America: two-thirds in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada. Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry winters. Extensive logging may soon cause their disappearance. | 72 | |
| 13865413371 | Temperate Shrub Lands | occurs along the coast of Southern California and the Mediterranean region. Characterized by areas of Chaparral-miniature woodlands dominated by dense stands of shrubs. | 73 | |
| 13865413372 | Savannas | grassland with scattered individual trees. Cover almost half the surface of Africa and large areas of Australia, South America, and India. Warm or hot climates where the annual rainfall is 20-50 inches per year. The rainfall is concentrated in six or eight months of the year, followed by a long period of drought when fires can occur. | 74 | |
| 13865413373 | Temperate Grasslands | dominated by grasses, trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less than in savannas. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Occur in South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, the steppes of the former Soviet Union, and the plains and prairies of central North America. | 75 | |
| 13865413374 | Deserts | covers about one fifth of the Earth's surface and occur where rainfall is less than 50 cm/year. Soils may have abundant nutrients, need only water to become productive, and have little or no organic matter. Common disturbances include occasional fires or cold weather, and sudden, infrequent, but intense rains that cause flooding. | 76 | |
| 13865413375 | Tundra | treeless plains that are the coldest of all the biomes. Occur in the arctic and Antarctica. Dominated by lichens, mosses, sedges, and dwarfed shrubs Characterized by extremely cold climate, permanently frozen ground (permafrost) low biotic diversity, simple vegetation structure, limitation of drainage, short season of growth and reproduction. | 77 | |
| 13865413376 | Wetlands | areas of standing water that support aquatic plants including marshes, swamps, and bogs. Reduce flooding. Species diversity is very high. | 78 | |
| 13865413377 | Fresh Water | defined as having a low salt concentration (less than 1%). Plants and animals are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt concentration (i.e., ocean). There are different types of regions: ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and estuaries. | 79 | |
| 13865413378 | Oceans | the largest of all the ecosystems. Regions are separated into separate zones: intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic. | 80 | |
| 13865413379 | Safe Drinking Water Act | set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants that may have adverse effects on human health. | 81 | |
| 13865413380 | Clean Water Act | Aim: to make all US waterways safe for fishing and swimming. set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways. Require the repairment of damaged wetlands. | 82 | |
| 13865413381 | Clean Air Act | NAAQS for 6 criteria pollutants. Set emission standards for mobile and stationary sources, and limits release of air pollutants. Multiple amendments, most influential modern env. law | 83 | |
| 13865413382 | Montreal Protocol | global agreement to phase out of ozone depleting substances. | 84 | |
| 13865413383 | Endangered Species Act | identifies threatened and endangered species in the US, and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations. | 85 | |
| 13865413384 | Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) | regulates the use and effectiveness of pesticides | 86 | |
| 13865413406 | Herbicide | a toxic chemical that kills plants | 87 | |
| 13865413407 | Insecticide | a toxic chemical that kills insects | 88 | |
| 13865413408 | Rodenticide | a toxic chemical that kills rodents | 89 | |
| 13865413409 | Fungicide | a toxic chemical that kills fungi | 90 | |
| 13865413410 | Niche | organism's role in the ecosystem of which it lives | 91 | |
| 13865413411 | Invasive Species | introduced into an ecosystem and out-compete native species | 92 | |
| 13865413412 | NO2, SO2, Pb, PM (2.5 and 10), O3, CO | 6 criteria air pollutants | 93 | |
| 13865413413 | Top 4 indoor air pollutants in DEVELOPED countries | Tobacco smoke, Formaldehyde, Radon Gas, Fine and Ultrafine Particulate Matter | 94 | |
| 13865413414 | saltwater intrusion | an infiltration of salt water in an area where groundwater pressure has been reduced from extensive drilling of wells | 95 | |
| 13865413415 | rock cycle | A series of processes on the surface and inside Earth that slowly changes rocks from one kind to another | 96 | |
| 13865413416 | Erosion | Processes by which rock, sand, and soil are broken down and carried away (i.e. weathering, glaciation) | 97 | |
| 13865413417 | soil conservation | a method to maintain the fertility of the soil by protecting the soil from erosion and nutrient loss | 98 | |
| 13865413418 | edge effect | different environmental conditions that occur along the boundaries of an ecosystem. May observe higher biodiversity | 99 | |
| 13865413419 | natural selection | A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits. | 100 | |
| 13865413420 | ecosystem services | the processes by which life-supporting resources such as clean water, timber, fisheries, and agricultural crops are produced | 101 | |
| 13865413421 | ecological succession | gradual change in living communities that follows a disturbance. Primary (no soil, much longer) or Secondary | 102 | |
| 13865413422 | nitrogen cycle | The transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere | 103 | |
| 13865413423 | nitrogen fixation | process of converting nitrogen gas (N2) into nitrogen compounds that plants can absorb and use (Ammonia/Ammonium: NH3/NH4+) | 104 | |
| 13865413424 | demographic transition | change in a population from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates across four stages | 105 | |
| 13865413425 | age structure diagram | graph of the numbers of males and females within different age groups of a population. Helps project population change over time | 106 | |
| 13865413426 | One Child Policy | A program established by the Chinese government in 1979 to slow population growth. | 107 | |
| 13865413427 | malnourished | Having a diet that lacks the correct balance of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. | 108 | |
| 13865413428 | undernourished | having insufficient food or other substances for good health and condition | 109 | |
| 13865413429 | Green Revolution | a large increase in crop production in developing countries achieved by the use of fertilizers, machines, pesticides, and high-yield crop varieties. | 110 | |
| 13865413430 | genetic engineering | Process of making changes in the DNA code of living organisms | 111 | |
| 13865413431 | Irrigation methods | Aquifer/well withdrawal, ditches and canals, drip, spray, flooding | 112 | |
| 13865413432 | IPM | Pest management using a variety of techniques, agricultural, biological and use of minimal amount of pesticides when necessary to limit pest damage to economically tolerable level | 113 | |
| 13865413433 | old growth/primary forest | an uncut or regenerated forest that has not been seriously disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for 200 years or more | 114 | |
| 13865413434 | tree plantation (aka tree farm or commercial forest) | a large area typically planted with a single rapidly growing tree species | 115 | |
| 13865413435 | crown fire | Extremely hot fire that leaps from treetop to treetop - occurs in forests with no surface fires for several decades (an excessive amount of deadwood has built up) - this kills most vegetation, wildlife, buildings and contributes to soil erosion | 116 | |
| 13865413436 | surface fires | fires that typically burn only the forest's underbrush and do little damage to mature trees. May actually serve to protect the forest from more harmful fires by removing underbrush and dead materials that would burn quickly and at high temperatures. | 117 | |
| 13865413437 | Overgrazing | Destruction of vegetation caused by too many animals consuming the plants in a particular area so they cannot recover | 118 | |
| 13865413438 | Desertification | Degradation of land, especially in semiarid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting. | 119 | |
| 13865413439 | suburban sprawl | low-population-density developments that are built outside of a city. Think strip malls, parking lots, spread out houses, lots of roads/highways | 120 | |
| 13865413440 | urban heat island | Is a metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas. Tall buildings block air flow, machines release heat, abundant dark surfaces | 121 | |
| 13865413441 | National Parks System | established by the United States to preserve historic sites & habitats of many plants & animals | 122 | |
| 13865413442 | wildlife refuge | an area designated for the protection of wild animals, within which hunting and fishing are either prohibited or strictly regulated | 123 | |
| 13865413443 | wilderness | An area where there are few people living; an area still in its natural state | 124 | |
| 13865413444 | Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) | this law requires mining companies to restore most surface-mined land by grading and replanting it | 125 | |
| 13865413445 | TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act) | act that regulates existing chemicals that pose an unreasonable health risk. Its objective is to allow EPA to regulate new commercial chemicals | 126 | |
| 13865413446 | RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) | developed a comprehensive program to ensure that hazardous waste is managed safely from the moment it is generated to its final disposal (cradle-to-grave) | 127 | |
| 13865413447 | purse-seine fishing | an effective fishing method for species that school near the surface; a large net is encircled around the targeted catch, after which the bottom of the net is drawn tight, thus confining the catch in the net. | 128 | |
| 13865413448 | longline fishing | a commercial fishing technique that uses a long line with baited hooks attached at intervals. | 129 | |
| 13865413449 | bottom trawling | a fishing technique in which the ocean floor is scraped by heavy nets that smash everything in their path to collect bottom dwellers | 130 | |
| 13865413450 | hydroponics | a technique of growing plants (without soil) in water containing dissolved nutrients | 131 | |
| 13865413451 | Tragedy of the Commons | situation in which people acting individually and in their own interest use up commonly available (public) but limited resources, creating disaster for the entire community | 132 | |
| 13865413452 | unit of energy | Wh or kWh (Watt-hour or Kilowatt-hour) | 133 | |
| 13865413453 | unit of power | Watt | 134 | |
| 13865413454 | 1000 | number of watts (W) in a kilowatt (kW) or number of kilowatts in a megawatt (MW) | 135 | |
| 13865413455 | formation of coal | Peat is the raw material from which coal is formed. Over time and under increasing heat and pressure, various types of coal are formed | 136 | |
| 13865413456 | anthracite | coal of a hard variety that contains relatively pure carbon and burns with little flame and smoke. | 137 | |
| 13865413457 | Bituminous | the second-purest form of coal. | 138 | |
| 13865413458 | Lignite | the least pure coal, soft, brownish | 139 | |
| 13865413459 | silting | When sediment becomes clogged behind a dam. | 140 | |
| 13865413460 | CAFE Standards (Corporate Average Fuel Economy) | these standards set mile per gallon standards for a fleet of cars; increased fuel economy = lower energy usage | 141 | |
| 13865413461 | Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) | A car that combines the engine of a conventional vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle, allowing it to achieve higher fuel economy than a conventional car | 142 | |
| 13865413462 | Biomass | total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level, can be used as alternative/renewable fuel source | 143 | |
| 13865413463 | tidal energy | The energy captured by transforming the wave motion of water into electrical energy using a turbine | 144 | |
| 13865413464 | photochemical smog | A brownish haze that is a mixture of ozone and other chemicals, formed when Nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds react with each other in the presence of sunlight | 145 | |
| 13865413465 | industrial smog | Type of air pollution consisting mostly of a mixture of sulfur dioxide, suspended droplets of sulfuric acid formed from some of the sulfur dioxide, and suspended solid particles, mostly due to burning coal | 146 | |
| 13865413466 | noise pollution | Any unwanted, disturbing, or harmful sound that impairs or interferes with hearing, causes stress, hampers concentration and work efficiency, or causes accidents. | 147 | |
| 13865413467 | light pollution | brightening of the night sky caused by street lights and other man-made sources, which has a disruptive effect on natural cycles and inhibits the observation of stars and planets. | 148 | |
| 13865413468 | Water pollution | oil spills, excess fertilizer, excess sediment, plastic particles, thermal, dumping of chemicals etc. | 149 | |
| 13865413469 | primary sewage treatment | Mechanical sewage treatment in which large solids are filtered out by screens and suspended solids settle out as sludge in a sedimentation tank. | 150 | |
| 13865413470 | secondary sewage treatment | a biological process in which aerobic bacteria remove as much as 90% of dissolved and biodegradable, oxygen-demanding organic wastes | 151 | |
| 13865413471 | tertiary sewage treatment | Advanced (expensive) Sewage Treatment: series of specialized chemical and physical processes used to remove specific pollutants left in the water such as nitrogen, phosphorus, bacteria and viruses. May use UV, ozone, chlorine or send through sand or activated carbon layers. | 152 | |
| 13865413472 | septic system | A relatively small and simple sewage treatment system, made up of a septic tank and a leach field, often used for homes in rural areas | 153 | |
| 13865413473 | CFCs and Nitrous Oxide (N2O) | Both greenhouse gas and contribute to ozone depletion when they break down in the stratosphere | 154 |
