I. Introduction
Americans sought to establish a republic based on the concepts of a representative government and a virtuous citizenry. Problems existed, however, because people understood the fragility of republics and they realized many problems needed resolution to ensure the survival of the nation.
II. Creating a Virtuous Republic
A. Varieties of Republicanism
Three definitions of republicanism emerged in the United States: one based on classical political thinking, one that emphasized rational self-interest, and one that called for broad popular participation.
B. Virtue and the Arts
Americans expected the republic to replace the corruption of Europe, and the fine arts reflected people’s faith in virtue.
C. Educational Reform
Education served to inculcate virtue. In the North, public schools emerged, and, throughout the nation, educational opportunities for girls improved.
D. Judith Sargent Murray and Women’s Education
Judith Sargent Murray argued that women and men had the same intellectual capabilities. Her contentions reflected a postrevolutionary rethinking of traditional gender roles.
E. Abigail Adams: “Remember the Ladies”
Abigail Adams advocated legal reform to protect the rights of married women. Others wanted female suffrage.
F. Women’s Role in the Republic
In the young republic, women assumed great responsibility for the welfare of the community. This role allowed men to pursue more individualistic goals.
III. The First Emancipation and the Growth of Racism
A. Emancipation and Manumission
In the North, states outlawed slavery, but representatives favored gradual emancipation. In the South, legislators approved some reforms in the legal status of slaves, but slavery remained entrenched.
B. Growth of Free Black Population
Before the Revolution, there had been few free blacks, but by 1800 nearly 108,000 of them lived in the United States. Many of the African Americans migrated to northeastern cities.
C. Migration to Northern Cities
Free blacks often made their way to northern cities.
D. Freed People’s Churches and Associations
Free blacks faced pervasive discrimination, leading them to create their own economic and social institutions.
E. Development of Racist Theory
To defend slavery in light of the Revolutionary idea that all men were equal, southerners developed theories on the inherent inferiority of Africans and African Americans.
F. A Republic for White Men Only
Some scholars believe that racism emerged in the new republic because discrimination against blacks enhanced the sense of equality for whites.
IV. Designing Republican Governments
A. Drafting of State Constitutions
Reflecting their colonial experience, writers of state constitutions emphasized the limits of power.
B. Limits on State Government
Framers put deliberate and clear limits on the powers of their executives.
C. Rewriting the State Constitutions
In the mid-1780s, some political leaders began to embody theory of checks and balances and the primary means of controlling government power.
D. Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation established an unwieldy, sometimes inefficient government.
V. Trials of the Confederation
A. Inflation and Taxation
Finances provided great difficulty for governments. Paper money retained its value until 1776 but suffered severe devaluation by the end of the war.
B. Inability to Regulate Commerce
The Confederation Congress was denied the power to establish a national commercial policy.
C. Relations with Spain and Britain
When Spain closed the Mississippi to American navigation, U.S. leaders failed to agree on a national reaction. Furthermore, Congress could not enforce total compliance by Great Britain with the Treaty of Paris.
VI. Order and Disorder in the West
A. Relations with the Indians
The United States signed a series of treaties with the Indians in order to validate government claims to tribal lands. Many tribes accepted these agreements only in the face of America’s overwhelming power.
B. Ordinances of 1784 and 1785
These ordinances outlined the process through which land in the Northwest Territory could be sold and formal governments organized.
C. Northwest Ordinance
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 was the most important of the three land policies passed by the Confederation Congress.
D War in the Old Northwest
An Indian confederacy under Little Turtle scored major victories over American troops in 1790 and 1791. An Indian defeat at Fallen Timbers led to a treaty that opened up much of Ohio to settlement, but the accord also protected some Indian claims.
VII. From Crisis to the Constitution
A. Economic Change
The inability of Congress to deal with economic concerns led Virginia and Maryland to call a convention to discuss trade policy.
B. Annapolis Convention
A meeting in Annapolis investigated changes to the Articles of Confederation, but failed because of a lack of participation forcing a call for a new convention the following year.
C. Shays’s Rebellion
This armed rebellion in Massachusetts convinced doubters that reform was necessary.
D. Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia
Delegates to the Constitutional Convention, held in Philadelphia, were generally reform-minded property owners.
E. James Madison: Father of the Constitution
James Madison gained recognition as the Father of the Constitution. Well-prepared when he arrived in Philadelphia, he set forth the fundamental concepts of checks and balances.
F. Virginia and New Jersey Plans
Virginians wanted a powerful central government. The New Jersey delegation advocated a limited national authority. The convention spent much of its time reconciling these positions.
G. The Debates: Houses of Congress
The issue of representation and election complicated debate over a bicameral legislature.
H. The Debates: Slavery and Representation
Delegates accepted a “three-fifths clause” to define the place of slaves in regards to taxation and representation.
I. Constitutional Protections for Slavery
This compromise, and other provisions, implicitly recognized the institution of slavery.
J. The Presidency
Foreign affairs, the military, and federal appointments became the domain of a chief executive, the President, chosen by the electoral college.
K. Separation of Powers
Separation of powers between the branches and levels of government is the essential element of the Constitution.
VIII. Opposition and Ratification
A. Federalists
Ratification required the approval of special conventions in at least nine states. Those who favored the Constitution called themselves Federalists¾the opposition became Antifederalists.
B. Antifederalists
Opponents of the Constitution feared the threat it posed to the states and to the people. They advocated a bill of rights to protect individual liberties.
C. Importance of a Bill of Rights
Opponents of the Constitution believed the document needed guarantees of certain rights.
D. Ratification of the Constitution
The arguments presented in The Federalist and the promise of a bill of rights led to ratification of the Constitution with New York’s approval on July 26, 1788.
E. Celebrating Ratification
Parades in many cities to celebrate ratification of the Constitution also served as political lessons for both literate and illiterate Americans.
