I. Introduction
Harry Truman introduced a new era that saw the United States and the Soviet Union move toward war and back again, exhausting their power and influence in the process.
II. Why the Cold War Began
A. Decolonization
Economic dislocation and the aftermath of disintegrating empires characterized the world after World War II.
B. U.S. Economic and Strategic Needs
An expanding American economy became part of an activist postwar foreign policy. In the air age, the United States and the Soviet Union collided as each attempted to establish defensive positions.
C. Truman’s Get?Tough Style
Truman had a brash and impatient style not suited to diplomacy.
D. Debate over Soviet Intentions and Behavior
Critics charged that policymakers often exaggerated the Soviet threat.
III. Truman’s Cold War: Europe and Global Containment
A. Atomic Diplomacy
The United States pursued a policy of using the atomic monopoly for leverage.
B. Kennan and Churchill Warn Against Soviet Power
George F. Kennan doubted if Soviets could be trusted, and Winston Churchill’s “iron curtain” speech solidified many Americans’ fears.
C. Truman Doctrine
In response to a British request for American aid against leftist insurgents in Greece and Turkey, Truman announced his commitment to stopping communism.
D. The “X” Article
George Kennan wrote an influential article that argued that the United States should contain Soviet expansion.
E. Marshall Plan
In 1947, the United States initiated the Marshall Plan, funneling billions of dollars into Western Europe.
F. National Security Act
The National Security Act created the Department of Defense, the National Security Council, the United States Information Agency, and the Central Intelligence Agency.
G. Fulbright Program and Cultural Expansion
The United States launched what amounted to a “cultural Marshall Plan.”
H. Recognition of Israel
The United States quickly recognized the new state of Israel in 1948.
I. Berlin Blockade and Airlift
In response to the Allied decision to unite their sections of Germany, the Soviets denied them access to Berlin. Truman responded with a massive airlift.
J. Point Four Program
In 1949 Truman instituted the Point Four Program to improve food supplies, public health, housing, and private investment in Third World countries.
K. Founding of NATO
The Berlin crisis and Soviet development of atomic weapons convinced the western nations to sign the North Atlantic Treaty Organization collective security accord.
L. NSC?68
In April 1950, the National Security Council issued NSC? 68, a secret document asking for increased funds and a publicity campaign to gain support for the expenditures.
IV. Asian Acrimony: Japan, China, and Vietnam
A. Reconstruction of Japan
The United States reconstructed Japan after World War II by providing it with a democratic constitution, by revitalizing its economy, and by destroying its weapons.
B. Communist Victory in Chinese Civil War
Despite Jiang Jieshi’s corruption and recalcitrance, the United States continued to back him against Mao Zedong.
C. U.S. Nonrecognition Policy
Mao defeated Jiang and established the People’s Republic of China. Truman did not recognize the new republic.
D. Vietnam’s Quest for Independence
The Vietnamese resisted colonialism, and when French authority collapsed during World War II the Vietminh declared independence in 1945. The Cold War gave the United States several reasons to reject Vietnamese autonomy.
E. U.S. Aid to France In the War Against the Vietminh
The United States bore most of the financial costs of the French war against the Vietminh.
V. The Korean War
A. Origins of the War
The leaders of both North and South Korea sought reunification. Kim Il Sung persuaded a reluctant Stalin to approve the June 1950 invasion against South Korea.
B. Truman Commits U.S. Forces
The United Nations’ Security Council voted to aid South Korea and Truman ordered American troops into the region. Truman sent troops because he believed that the Soviets had orchestrated the attack. MacArthur staged a brilliant amphibious landing behind enemy lines that forced the North Koreans to retreat.
C. Chinese Entry into the War
When the Chinese sent thousands of troops into North Korea, MacArthur demanded full?scale bombing of China.
D. Truman’s Firing of General MacArthur
MacArthur denounced Truman’s actions regarding China, leading the President to fire him.
E. Dispute over POWs
Thousands of North Korean and Chinese prisoners did not want to go home; the United States did not return them.
F. Costs and Consequences of the War
More than four million people died in this limited war. The powers of the presidency grew during the war, and the stalemated war helped elect Eisenhower.
G. Globalization of Containment
Worldwide military containment became entrenched as U.S. policy causing an escalation in defense spending.
VI. Eisenhower, Dulles, and Unrelenting Cold War
A. John Foster Dulles
Secretary of State John Foster Dulles intoned systematic and uncompromising anti-Communism. Dulles purged the State Department of many specialists, among them Asian experts whose absence adversely affected the American role in Vietnam.
B. Eisenhower-Dulles Policies
“Liberation,” “massive retaliation,” and the “New Look” military became bywords of American foreign policy. Backed by increasing stockpiles of nuclear weapons, the U.S. practiced “brinkmanship.”
C. CIA as Foreign Policy Instrument
The CIA put foreign leaders on its payroll, subsidized foreign labor unions, and engaged in “disinformation” campaigns. The CIA also launched covert operations to subvert governments in the Third World.
D. Propaganda and Cultural Infiltration
The U.S. also allocated assets for radio broadcasts and other media.
E. Hydrogen Bomb, Sputnik, and Missiles
American production of the incredibly powerful hydrogen bomb increased Soviet-American tensions. Following Soviet advances in missile technology, the United States stepped up its missile research.
F. Eisenhower’s Critique of Nuclear Arms
Eisenhower expressed his uneasiness over the arms race.
G. Rebellion in Hungary
When troops crushed a revolt against Soviet power in Hungary, America could do nothing to help the rebels without risking full?scale war.
H. U?2 Incident
The Soviets walked out of the 1960 Paris summit when the Americans refused to apologize for U?2 spy missions.
I. Jinmen-Mazu Crisis
The Formosa Resolution of 1955 allowed deployment of American forces to defend the Formosan islands, which prompted China to develop nuclear capability by 1964.
J. “Japanese Miracle”
The United States rebuilt Japan as a bulwark against communist influence in Asia.
VII. At Odds with the Third World
A. Interests in the Third World
Decolonization advanced rapidly after 1945. The Soviets and the Americans sought alliances with the new nations.
B. Nonaligned Movement
Many Third World nations did not want to take sides in the Cold War and declared themselves nonaligned.
C. American Images of Third World Peoples
Americans saw the Third World’s people emotional, irrational, and dependent.
D. Racism and Segregation as U.S. Handicaps
American racism became an embarrassment and a liability in efforts to befriend Third World nations.
E. U.S. Hostility to Nationalist Revolution
Many people believed that Third World revolutions were aimed at American allies and at American investments.
F. Development and Modernization
The U.S. sought to aid developing nations in order to foster stability. The U.S. also directed propaganda toward the Third World to persuade Third World peoples to abandon radical doctrines and neutralism.
G. Third World Views of the United States
People in the developing nations both envied and resented the U.S.
VIII. U.S. Interventions in the Third World
A. CIA in Guatemala
The CIA helped overthrow Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in Guatemala in 1951 because the United Fruit Corporation disliked his confiscation of their lands.
B. The Cuban Revolution and Fidel Castro
Fidel Castro’s ouster of Fulgencio Batista in Cuba sparked a serious crisis. When Cuba moved into a closer relationship with the Soviets, Eisenhower encouraged Cuban exiles to invade their homeland.
C. Operation Bootstrap in Puerto Rico
Operation Bootstrap encouraged investments in Puerto Rico from U.S. corporations.
D. U.S. Interests in the Middle East
American policy in the Middle East centered on upholding Israel and protecting the region’s extensive oil holdings.
E. Suez Crisis
In 1956, Egypt nationalized the British?owned Suez Canal. The Israelis, British, and French moved against Egypt, but the United States refused to support them.
F. Eisenhower Doctrine
Eisenhower declared that the United States would intervene in the Middle East if any government threatened by a communist takeover asked for aid.
G. Dienbienphu Crisis in Vietnam
The Vietminh surrounded French troops at Dienbienphu, forcing France to end the war.
H. Geneva Accords
A peace accord divided Vietnam and set a 1956 election to unify the county, but Diem refused to hold the election.
I. Backing the Diem Regime in South Vietnam
The United States backed a corrupt and repressive regime in South Vietnam.
