Major Empires

1450-1750
Early Modern Period

1. Major Empires
   1. European Overview
      1. Most monarchies
         1. divine right ordained by God
      2. Retain pure bloodlines to God
         1. intermarriage among royal families of different nations common
         2. monarchies of one nation gained international influence
            1. ties of marriage/inheritance led to alliances
      3. Strong national loyalties
         1. Led to internal/external conflicts
            1. religious fights between Protestants and Catholics
            2. internal civil wars between monarch and nobles
            3. battles stemming from trade disputes between rival nations
      4. Spain/Portugal start off strong – England/France replace
   2. Ottoman
      1. Background Information
         1. Abbasid Caliphate loses power in 1200s
            1. Decades of chaos and confusion followed
            2. Strong Islamic empires emerged to replace fallen caliphate
               1. Ottoman Empire
               2. Safavid Empire in Persia
               3. Mughal Empire in India
               4. Characteristics of all three
                  1. extremely centralized
                  2. technologically advanced
                  3. military powerful
                  4. “gunpowder empires”
                     1. Mastery of weaponry
                     2. Effective use of weapons for maintaining regional power
         2. History of Ottoman Empire
            1. Islamic Empire overrun by Mongols in 13th century
            2. Byzantine Empire huge influence
               1. controlled most of Turkey
               2. Influenced Southeastern Europe/Russia
            3. Mongol Empire fell, Osman Bey led Muslim Ottoman Empire
               1. Eastern Turkey – named after first leader Osman
                  1. On the steppes of Central Asia
                  2. Migrated westward to Asia Minor in 1200s
                  3. Vassals of the Seljuk Turks
                  4. Established own state in 1280 and then slowly expanded
               2. Challenged Byzantine Empire
               3. Over 14th century, gradually expanded
               4. 1453 invaded Constantinople
            4. by 1550 controlled most of former Roman Empire, except for Italy west
         3. Constantinople renamed Istanbul
            1. Converted cathedrals to mosques – Hagia Sophia
         4. Religious policy – extremely tolerant – most tolerant empire in Europe
            1. Jews/Christians allowed to practice
            2. As empire grew, so did religious persecution
               1. conquered large areas – enslaved Christian subjects’ children
                  1. fighting warriors – Janisaries
         5. Selim I – 1512 - claimed to be rightful heir of caliphs
            1. Istanbul became center of Islamic civilization
         6. Suleiman I – the Magnificent started Golden Age
            1. Increased military spending
            2. encouraged development of the arts
            3. 1529 – laid siege on Vienna, but stopped
               1. Could have changed course of Western Europe
         7. Lasted until 1922
            1. greatly expanded reach of Islam
            2. kept Eastern Europe in state of flux/always threatened
               1. Western Europe could dominate
               2. Exploration allowed them to bypass Ottoman Empire
                  1. Traded directly with India, China, Americas
         8. Accomplishments
            1. transforming Constantinople into Muslim capital – Istanbul
            2. turning many of the great Byzantine churches, such as Hagia Sophia, into mosques
            3. building an empire on part of 3 continents
            4. maintaining large multiethnic empire from Belgrade to Egypt for 600 years
            5. creating extensive civil service and bureaucracy
               1. Using slaves and subject peoples for labor
            6. reasonably accessible government allowing citizens to petition the sultan regarding religious and political issues
      2. Political Structure
         1. Sultan – sovereign over ministers – wazirs
            1. Ruled with help of provincial governors – beys
            2. Gradually power taken from local rulers
               1. held from Topkapi Palace “Cannon Gate” – Istanbul
            3. 1500 sultan claims title of caliph – religiously legitimizing political authority
         2. Military
            1. Conquests
               1. Destruction of Byzantine Empire – 1453
                  1. 80,000 army + artillery
               2. Pressed into N. Africa
               3. Pushed into Europe – Romania
                  1. Constant assault on Austria’s Holy Roman Empire
                  2. Defeated Hungary
               4. Superiority of Mediterranean until 1500s
                  1. Remained powerful presence until World War I
            2. Military
               1. Incorporated gunpowder artillery, cannon into armies
               2. Cannon on navies
               3. Cavalry supported with janissaries “new troops”
                  1. recruited from childhood from conquered Christians
                  2. Converted to Islam and raised to be loyal to sultan
                  3. Slaves…but with many privileges
                  4. Advanced training in using gunpowder
                  5. System kept them at forefront of world military affairs
            3. Politics and religion
               1. Governed diverse religions
                  1. Variety of Christians – Orthodox, Nestorian, Coptic, Catholic, Protestant
                  2. Sunni and Shiite Muslims
               2. Many languages – Turkish, Arabic, Persian
               3. Religious tolerance for non-Muslims
                  1. Allowed to convert to Islam, but not forced
                  2. Pay a special head tax
                  3. Not treated badly – not totally equal, but not persecuted
                  4. Kept peace with economic benefits
               4. Divided into administrative units – millets
               5. Sultan position hereditary
                  1. not always inherited
                     1. sultan usually didn’t marry – heirs through concubines
                     2. concubine’s son chosen as heir = “queen mother”
                        1. Influence as advisor
                  2. New sultan often killed brothers to eliminate competition
      3. Social
         1. Women
            1. Elite
               1. Several influential, yet informal roles
                  1. Queen mothers
                     1. ran royal house
                     2. diplomatic relations w/ foreign naitions
                     3. Controlled marriage alliances
                  2. Harem – complex elite social network
                     1. Originally slaves (not Islamic) or prisoners b, Trained to read Qu’ran, sew, perform music
                     2. Ranked by status
                     3. Could leave harem to marry officials
                     4. Few used for sexual purposes
                     5. Members of sultan’s extended family
                     6. Mother influence over sons – raised and then respected
            2. Outside imperial family
               1. Not seen in public in Istanbul/major cities
               2. Right to own/retain property
               3. Purchased urban real estate
               4. Could testify for selves in court
         2. Culture
            1. Intellectual advancement high
               1. Lost dominance over Europeans in 1600s
                  1. Europe’s Scientific Revolution
                  2. Complacency
            2. Skilled architects
               1. Mosques + minarets/large domes
               2. Renowned for mosaics
         3. Class structure
            1. Sultan – leader
            2. Vizier – prime minister
            3. Divan – cabinet of advisors
            4. Janissaries – elite military corps of converted slaves
            5. Regional officials
            6. General population
               1. merchants, farmers/peasants, artisans
   3. China
      1. Political
         1. History - Ming
            1. Ming Dynasty – 1368-1644
               1. Founded by Zhu Yuanzhang
                  1. Warlord who assisted in kicking out Mongols
               2. Reacted against Mongol rule by returning to Chinese tradition
            2. Ming Dynasty reforms
               1. Scholar gentry restored
               2. Confucian based civil service exam reinstated/expanded
                  1. Women still banned from taking exam
               3. Currupt/incompetent public officials beaten in public
            3. Brief attempts at exploration trade
               1. Zheng He – brief, several major expeditions of exploration/trade
               2. Sailed through Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf
               3. By 1430 scholar-gentry persuaded Ming leaders to call back
                  1. Too costly, need to spend money on Mongol threat
            4. Successes
               1. Politically dynamic and militarily active state – conquered neighbors
               2. Economically prosperous
               3. Population grew steadily in 1300s and 1400s – recovering from war/disease
            5. Decline
               1. Last 200 years ruled by incompetent rulers
                  1. Maintenance of dams, dikes, irrigation systems neglected
                  2. Classic pattern of decline
                     1. rulers effective/dynamic at beginning - 14th/15th
                     2. Become complacent – withdraw to Forbidden City
               2. Nomadic peoples continued to pressure Great Wall
                  1. Led to higher taxes
                  2. 1644 – Jurchens, Manchus, conquered Ming dynasty
                  3. Became the Qing dynasty – ruled into 20th century
                     1. Last dynasty
               3. Court eunuchs became very powerful/corrupt – influenced decisions
               4. Scandals involving misappropriation of imperial funds
                  1. scholar-gentry protest
               5. Massive influx of precious metals triggered inflation
                  1. Spanish/Portuguese only had silver to offer
               6. Agricultural yields shrank
                  1. Soil quality worsens + cooler climate
                  2. Land can’t accommodate population growth
               7. Peasant revolt
               8. Last Ming emperor – Chung-cheng committed suicide after trying to kill family
            6. Remained relatively isolated from the west
         2. History – Qing/Manchu Dynasty – 1644-1911
            1. Manchu
               1. Pastoral nomads from North
                  1. Manchuria – ethnically distinct
               2. last imperial family/foreign rule of China
               3. Incorporated elements of Chinese culture
                  1. used traditional civil service examination
                  2. encouraged neo-Confucian values
                     1. obedience to ruler strictly enforced
                     2. Confucian ideal of traditional agriculture
                     3. Disallowed technical advancement
                     4. Return to feudal past
                  3. Eunuchs employed as court officials
                  4. Adopted a xenophobic foreign policy
                  5. Manchus given superior positions over Chinese
               4. Kept themselves apart as rulers
            2. Qing economics
               1. Full scale trade with Europeans began under Qing – 1690s
               2. Closely regulated trade by state
               3. Went through port of Canton exclusively – like Nagasaki
               4. Sold porcelain, tea, and silk
               5. Allowed few imports – usually paid with silver
               6. favorable balance of trade
            3. Qing decline
            4. rulers grew softer and less active
            5. population grew faster than economy
            6. poverty worsened
            7. slipping backward in terms of technological innovation, scientific advancement, global power
               1. Left selves open to influence and the later domination
         3. During time period, power shift began
            1. didn’t benefit from scientific/technological advances of Europe
      2. Social
         1. Ming Dynasty reforms
            1. Thought control sanctioned by government
            2. Neo-Confucianism increased its influence – strict obedience to state
            3. Women continued to occupy a subordinate position
         2. Foreigners allowed under Ming
            1. late 16th century – Jesuits allowed to enter
               1. Chinese interested in scientific and technological knowledge
               2. Allowed to remain through Ming Dynasty
         3. Social hierarchy under Ming
            1. Absolute power from ruler > scholar gentry > farmers > merchants
               1. Denigration of commercial class becomes problem later on
               2. Aggressive European traders able to have impact in 1700s
         4. Under Qing – Manchu
            1. Manchus above Chinese
            2. Manchus not allowed to engage in trade or manual labor
            3. Marriage between Manchus and Chinese forbidden
            4. All Han men required to wear their hair braided in the back
               1. Found humiliating
               2. Hairstyle – que – visual image west has of China
               3. shave their foreheads “lose your hair or lose your head” Chinese proverb
         5. Cultural grandeur/elegance – peak during Ming dynasty
            1. literary masterpieces, fine porcelain, architecture, revival of Confucianism
   4. Portugal
      1. Political
      2. Social
   5. Spain
      1. Political
         1. King Ferdinand from Christian North + Queen Isabella from Muslim South united
            1. created nation-state
            2. aggressively supported exploration
               1. underwriting Columbus’ exploration
               2. establishing empires in the New World
            3. Formidable navy fleet – Spanish Armada
               1. Ruled the seas for 16th century
         2. Charles V
            1. Grandparents on one side Hapsburgs on the other side Isabella and Ferdinand
            2. Empire stretched from Austria to Germany to Spain
               1. 1519 – Holy Roman Emperor
                  1. Held parts of France, Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Spain
                  2. Possessions brought wars/riches
                     1. Fought France for Italy
                     2. Fought Ottoman Empire for Eastern Europe
                     3. Defended Catholicism in Germany
                  3. 1556 – retired to monastery – split throne
         3. Philip II gets throne of Spain
            1. Controls part of France, Sicily and Netherlands
               1. Greatest expansion in the New World
               2. Rebirth of culture under Spanish Renaissance
            2. Devout
               1. continuation of Spanish Inquisition for heretics
               2. Catholic Reformation against Protestants
               3. Increase in missionary work
            3. Dutch revolted
               1. wanted autonomy – develop own empire
               2. Protestant
               3. 1581 – Northern provinces gained independence – Dutch Netherlands
                  1. Southern part remains loyal to Spain – later becomes Belgium
            4. Other signs of failure
               1. Spanish forces fighting for Catholicism in France unsuccessful
               2. English defeated Spanish at the British Isles
               3. Containment of Spain, Rise of Britain
               4. Mid 17th century had colonial holdings, but influence failing
            5. Why Spanish failure?
               1. Amassed enormous sums of gold
               2. Spent just as quickly
                  1. Wars
                  2. Missionary activity
                  3. Maintenance of huge fleet
         4. Accomplishments
            1. expelling Moors and ending Islamic rule in southwestern Europe
            2. sponsoring maritime exploration that led to the creation of a vast overseas Spanish Empire
            3. close ties with the Catholic Church
            4. loss of the Netherlands as a Spanish holding
            5. literary flowering that produced Don Quixote – one of the greatest modern works of Western literature
      2. Social
         1. Exploration and colonization ensured spread of Spanish language, culture, Catholicism
            1. extended across Atlantic
   6. Russia
      1. Political
         1. Effects of Mongol Rule
            1. Nation with weakened emphasis on education, trade and manufacturing
         2. Third Rome
            1. After Rome, Constantinople – Orthodox Christianity moved to Moscow
         3. Ivan III/IV – declared Russia free of Mongol control – 1480
            1. established absolute rule in Russia
            2. expanded empire eastward
               1. with expansion added substantial Muslim minority
            3. Cossacks
               1. Recruited peasants – freed from feudal relationship
                  1. Conquer eastern land
                  2. Inhabit eastern land
               2. Ivan the Terrible – Czar – Russian for Caesar
                  1. Ruled under reign of terror
                     1. Executed anyone who disagreed
            4. Comparing Russia with Western Europe
               1. Russia – centralization of authority, but still feudalism vs. W. Europe evolving
               2. Russia remains isolated from west, pushed eastward
                  1. W. Europe – Renaissance , exploration, religious debate, scientific rev/enlightenment passed over
                     1. Not part of Renaissance, controlled by illiterate Mongols
                     2. Not part of Reformation, not Catholic
               3. Growth territorial, not artistic/intellectual
            5. Following Ivan IV 1584
               1. Fight for the throne – Time of Troubles
               2. Feudal lords vie for power – kill one after another
               3. Michael Romanov czar 1613
                  1. Romanov family rules until 1917
            6. Romanov family
               1. consolidated power, ruled ruthlessly
               2. peasants became slaves/serfs
               3. spread empire – 1689 from Ukraine to Manchuria/Pacific Ocean
               4. Created state control over the Russian Orthodox Church
            7. Peter the Great – 1682-1725
               1. Convinced he must westernize Russia
                  1. Larger agricultural nation than East Asian empires or W. Europe
                  2. Travels to Europe to try to get support against Turks
                     1. Gained appreciation for Western ideas
               2. Russia’s first navy
               3. New capital – St. Petersburg
                  1. Home to hundreds of engineers, scientists, artists, architects
               4. War with Sweden gained warm water port
               5. Did not accept Western democratic trends – parliamentary government
               6. Created secret police
               7. Encouraged the continuation of serfdom
                  1. Bound to land only – not to person
                  2. Kept economy bound to agriculture
            8. Catherine the Great
               1. Continued xpansionist and westernization policies of Peter
               2. Laws restricting serfs were harsher than before
               3. Reduced severe punishments for crimes
               4. Added new territory down to Northern California
         4. Social
            1. Before Romanov family, excluded from Western Change
               1. Illiteracy of Mongols + Orthodox + Geography
            2. Peter the Great
               1. St. Petersburg- “window to the west”
                  1. recruited finest scientists/artists to change Russia
               2. Women nobles forced to dress in western fashions
               3. Men shaved beards, wear western clothing
                  1. Out with the old, in with the new
                  2. Showed denial of Mongol traditions
               4. Architecture of city done by serfs
            3. Catherine the Great – 1762-1796
               1. Enlightened policies of education and wester culture
               2. Fiercely enforced serfdom
               3. Devalued merchant class
               4. Territorially expanded west – Poland/Black Sea territory – Mediterranean
            4. Westernization
               1. By end of 18th century looked a lot different
                  1. Gained sea access through Black/Baltic Seas
                  2. Actively sought cultural access to the west
               2. Unlike Chinese/Japanese who fully withdrew
                  1. Russians wanted to engage the West, emulate it
   7. France
      1. Political
         1. Unification began after Hundred Years War drove English from France
            1. central authority in a strong monarch
         2. Religious differences prevented full unity
            1. Largely Catholic
            2. French Protestants – Huguenots
               1. Sizable and influential minority
            3. Mid to late 16th century fought brutally
               1. 1598 – Henry IV – Edict of Nantes – environment of toleration
               2. Henry IV – Bourbon king
                  1. Bourbons ruled France until 1792
         3. Comparing England and France in 17th century
            1. France ruled by series of strong and able monarchs – Bourbon Dynasty
            2. After Elizabeth, England went from…
               1. Monarchy>commonwealth>Restoration>Glorious Revolution
            3. France’s Estates General weaker than England’s Parliament
               1. Estates General didn’t meet for most of 17th century
                  1. King ruled successfully under divine right
               2. Parliament in England
                  1. limited power of monarchs
                  2. representatives chosen by voters from elite classes
         4. Cardinal Richeliu
            1. Catholic – chief advisor to Bourbons
            2. Strengthened French crown
               1. Didn’t seek to destroy Protestants
               2. Helped them attack Catholic Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire
                  1. Empire’s fall would benefit France
            3. New bureaucratic class
               1. noblesse de la robe – bureaucrats – run government
               2. prepared France for strong position under Louis XIV
         5. Louis XIV
            1. Four years old when took crown – mother/Cardinal Mazarin ruled for him
            2. Long rule 1643-1715 exemplified grandiose whims of absolute monarchy
               1. “Sun King” “Most Christian King”
               2. Patronized arts – contributed to culture, glory of France
               3. “I am the State”
               4. Built Versailles to prove power
               5. Never summoned Estates General to meet
               6. Revoked Edict of Nantes – forced Huguenots to leave
               7. Appointed Jean Baptiste Cobert to manage royal funds
                  1. Increase size of French empire
                     1. More business transactions
                     2. More taxes
                  2. France constantly at war
                  3. Warfare and mercantilist policies allowed French to get rich
                  4. War of Spanish Succession – 1701-1714 hurt plans
            3. War of Spanish Succession
               1. Louis XIV’s grandson inherits Spanish thrown
                  1. Europe afraid of supernation/empire
                  2. France controls huge chunk of Americas
                  3. Spain controls most of Mexico, South America
               2. England, Holy Roman Empire, German princes vs. France
               3. Eventually – grandson – Philip V can rule
                  1. Spain loses land to England
                  2. Spain can’t unite with France
         6. By 1750 military strength starting to fade
         7. Still center of culture for Europe
         8. Accomplishments
            1. Established academies for study of commerce and science
            2. Close ties between the Catholic Church and the French state formed
            3. Solidified autocratic control over France
            4. Most ornate and expensive palace in Europe was built at Versailles
            5. Sponsored writers and musicians
            6. Engaged in costly wars that strained the royal treasury
         9. Characteristics of absolute monarchies
            1. maintenance of strong armies
            2. establishment of elaborate bureaucracies
            3. high taxes to support the frequent wars
            4. believed in divine right of kings
            5. territorial expansion a goal
         10. Characteristics of European nation states
             1. well-suited to continent full of various cultural groups
             2. governs people who share a common culture, common language
             3. has definite geographic boundaries
             4. enjoys sovereignty
             5. created rivalries and divisions that often led to war
      2. Social
   8. England
      1. Political
         1. Mid 1400s war between two powerful families
            1. The War of the Roses
            2. House of Lancaster vs. the House of York
            3. New ruling dynasty – the Tudors – Henry VIII and Elizabeth
            4. Accomplishments
               1. broke with the Catholic Church and fromed the Church of England
                  1. monarch at the head
               2. Wales was absorbed into the domain of England
               3. Defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588
                  1. Marked beginning of Spanish decline, Egnland ascendancy
               4. Encouraged the arts – High Renaissance bloomes
               5. Literary achievement notable – Ben Johnson and William Shakespeare

            a, Henry VIII – 1509-1547 - Church of England

            1. Henry VIII nullified pope’s authority in England – Act of Supremacy
               1. Divorce wife and marry Ann Boleyn for male heir
                  1. Daughter was Elizabeth – oversaw golden/bloody age
         2. Elizabethan Age – 1558-1603
            1. Commercial expansion
               1. Muscovy Co mpany – first joint stock company – to Russia
               2. British East India Company
            2. Exploration and colonization in the New World
               1. Sped up after defeat of Spanish Armada in 1588
               2. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe
               3. First English colonies in Virginia – Jamestown
            3. Religious battles unleashed by Protestant Reformation
               1. Anglicans – Church of England battling Catholics
               2. Puritans regularly persecuted
         3. James I power in 1607
            1. Attempted to accommodate Catholics and Puritans – problems persisted
               1. Puritans didn’t recognize king for religious matters
                  1. James claims divine right
                  2. Pilgrims find a new home in New World
         4. Charles I – 1625
            1. Petition of Right – desperate for money – Parliament has power of purse
               1. Limited taxes
               2. Forbid unlawful imprisonment
               3. Ignores petition after getting funds – doesn’t let parliament meet 11 yrs
            2. 1640 Scotland doesn’t like Charles rule
               1. Parliament called back
                  1. Long parliament – 20 years – 1640-1660
                  2. Refused to give him money to fight Irish
                  3. Charles sends troops to arrest parliament members
                  4. Leads to civil war
               2. Roundheads – Oliver Cromwell vs. Charles’s Cavaliers
                  1. Roundheads win – king executed
                  2. Cromwell rose to power as Lord Protector
                     1. Beginnings of English Commonwealth
         5. Oliver Cromwell
            1. Religious intolerance
               1. Violence against Catholics/Irish
                  1. Encouraged Protestants to move to Northern Ireland
                     1. Led to conflicts later
                  2. Much resentment
            2. Upon Cromwell’s death – Charles II brought to throne for limited monarchy
               1. Stuart Restoration
         6. Charles II – 1660
            1. Closet Catholic – gave religious rights to people
            2. Habeus Corpus – no unlawful arrests without due process
         7. James II – openly Catholic
            1. Believed in Divine Right of Kings
               1. People feared he’d make a Catholic nation
            2. Fled to France under Glorious Revolution
               1. Replaced in 1688 by son-in-law and daughter – William and Mary
         8. William and Mary – 1689
            1. Protestant rulers of the Netherlands
            2. English Bill of Rights – created constitutional monarchy
               1. England’s future rulers Anglican
               2. Powers limited
               3. laws passed by parliament now laws of the land
               4. all taxes only levied by parliament
               5. citizens allowed to petition monarch with grievances
               6. freedom of speech within Parliament
            3. Radical replacement of sitting king, set precedent for making royalty figureheads
      2. Social
         1. Elizabethan Age
            1. Shakespeare wrote his masterpieces
   9. Tokugawa Japan
      1. Political
         1. History
            1. The Warring States Period – 1467-1600 – Era of Independent Lords
               1. Open defiance of the Shogun led to political fragmentation
                  1. small regions fighting against each other
                  2. Governed by a series of military governments – shogunates
                  3. By late 1300s/1400s, becoming increasingly decentralized
               2. 200 daimyo – feudal lords fought each other
                  1. Samurais followed bushido – way of the warrior
                     1. Some left masters/masters killed - ronin
               3. “samurai military aristocracy” further established
               4. Ended in climatic battle of 1600
                  1. Toyotomi Hideyoshi united Japan
                     1. Appointed five regents to rule until son got older
                     2. These five regents fought each other for power
                  2. Winner Tokugawa Ieyasu
                     1. Forced Hideyoshi’s son to kill himself
                     2. Technically ruled in the name of the emperor, but…
            2. Tokugawa Shogunate – bakufu - 1603 – Tokugawa family acquired the title of shogun
               1. Ruled Japan from city of Edo – Tokyo – known as Edo period
               2. ended the feudal fighting
               3. Established new feudal order that would last for centuries
               4. 15 Tokugawa shoguns
                  1. Stability, law and order their priorities
                  2. Known as the Great Peace
         2. Centralized authority
            1. Large estates of daimyo broken up and taken over by Tokugawa
            2. Peace came at the price of dictatorship
               1. Increased social stratification
         3. Economic gains
            1. Population grew rapidly
            2. Rice and grain production more than doubled
            3. Highly urbanized – Edo one of world’s largest cities
            4. Built elaborate network of roads and canals
            5. Manufacturing – lacquerware, pottery, steel, and quality weapons
            6. Merchant class gains in wealth and power
      2. Social
         1. Warring States Period
            1. Religion
               1. New sects of Buddhism arrived from China
                  1. attracted Samurai class
                     1. Buddhist detachment from worldly pain
                     2. impervious to suffering
         2. Edo Period – Tokugawa Shogunate
            1. Class hierarchy – social stratification becomes unbreakoutable
               1. Samurai – martial elite, including shogun, all daimyo, soldiers
               2. Farmers – peasants whose duty was to feed the nation
               3. Craftspeople – makers of goods such as clothes/tools
               4. Traders/merchants – business class who bought and sold
               5. Eta:outcasts – engaged in “unclean” professions – animal skinning/tanning
               6. Tokugawa laws – rigid to protect the status quo/privileges of samurai
                  1. Social class defined at birth
                  2. Farmers had to stay on their land
                  3. only samurai allowed to carry long sword
                  4. Japanese forbidden from leaving Japanese islands – death
                  5. One Dutch ship could trade per year – Kyushu
                  6. Families of daimyo lived in Edo – guarantees loyalty
                  7. Christianity outlawed
                  8. Some southern daimyo converted and rebelled – cause
      3. Neo-Confucianism
         1. Tokugawa adopted to form traditional basis
            1. Like China, reciprocal relationship between ruled and ruler
            2. Ruler maintains order/acts benevolent and ruled obey those in charge
            3. Creates harmony in society
         2. Hallmarks – primary points
            1. Historicism – looked to the past as a guide – Shogun ruled in name of Emperor
            2. Rationalism – investigate natural and human world to discover principles of human interactions
            3. Basic Human Relations – Stressed social order, rejected Buddhist metahphysics – Five Relationships
            4. Ethnocentrism – saw selves as superior to outsiders
               1. Pride in divine emperor
               2. Own uniqueness as a people
      4. Women
         1. Women lived under increased restrictions
            1. Particularly the samurai class – guided by Confucian teachings
         2. Wives obey husbands or face death
         3. Little authority over property
         4. Females educated at home, brothers at school
            1. Upper class families – women expressed their literacy through creativity
         5. Must display social graces that matched husband’s rank and status
         6. Lower class women
            1. Gender relations more egalitarian
            2. Both worked in fields
            3. Women given respect as homemakers/mothers
            4. Some peasant women active in social protests/political demonstrations
            5. Girl children less valued
               1. Some sold into prostitution
               2. Some put to death
      5. Culture
         1. Castle architecture partially imitated Europe
            1. hilltop, stone, small windows, watchtowers, massive walls
         2. Drama
            1. More restrained drama replaced with kabuki theater
            2. Kabuki – emphasized violence, physical action and music
               1. Often depicted urban life – brothels, dance halls
               2. Criticized for its potentially corrupting effect
         3. Art
            1. Woodblock Print becomes established artform
            2. Borrowed from outsiders
               1. Japanese potters borrowed Korean ceramics techniques
               2. Experimented with western style oil painting
                  1. Perspective/interplay of light
               3. Reason for difference
                  1. Urban areas developing rapidly
                  2. Merchant and artisan class developing – patrons
                  3. Confucian values carried less weight
   10. Mughal India
       1. Political
          1. History
             1. Collapse of Delhi Sultanate in 1300s
                1. Began to lose territory
                2. Delhi taken and ransacked by Mongol Timur in 1398
             2. 1526, Babur – descendant of Mongols/Turks
                1. Migrated from steppes to India
                2. Had lost kingdom in central Asia – came from Afghanistan
                3. 12,000 men defeated over 100,000
             3. Used superior gunpowder technology to conquer northern India
             4. Empire lasted until mid 19th century
          2. Akbar – 1560-1605
             1. expanded empire through north and central India under control
             2. Established a bureaucracy
             3. patronized the arts
             4. encouraged cooperation between Hindus and Muslims – relatively tolerant
          3. Mughal Empire
             1. Mughal – Persian word for Mongol – English rich person called mogul
             2. Empire continued for 200 years 1530-1700s
             3. Mughal rulers – Muslim
                1. One of three great Muslim empires – Ottoman Empire/Safavid Persia
                   1. One of the “gunpowder” empires
                      1. Used military force and weapons technology to maintain power
                   2. Lost ground to nations of Europe during late 1600s
             4. Economics
                1. Thrived thanks to boom in Indian cotton trade
          4. Decline
             1. cost of warfare and defensive efforts to protect northern border
                1. Tried to attack Marathas in the south
             2. leaders failed to bridge differences between Hindus and Muslims
             3. Centralized government returned to local political organizations
             4. Decline of centralized power opened up to foreign control
                1. British
             5. Last emperor – Aurangzeb tried to impose orthodox Islam
                1. Undid earlier tolerant policies
                   1. Got rid of Hindus from public service
          5. European arrival
             1. set up trading ports and factories
             2. Portuguese set up on coast of Goa
             3. 1696 – British East India Company takes over Calcutta from Mughals
                1. Hindu princes allies to push out Mughal rule
       2. Social
          1. Treatment of women
             1. Akbar broke with Hindu/Muslim tradition regarding treatment of women
             2. encouraged widows to remarry
             3. outlawed sati – ritual suicide at husband’s funeral pyre
             4. encouraged merchants to arrange market days for women
                1. Allows those following purday – confinement – to get out
             5. By end of Mughal empire – changes had largely been discontinued
             6. Child marriage attempts to slow/end
             7. Female aristocrats
                1. awarded titles
                2. earned salaries
                3. owned land
                4. ran businesses
                5. some received education and expressed creative talents openly
             8. Women of all castes able to supplement income with woven products
             9. But…some ideas reflected Muslim law
                1. Cloistered inside the home – especially upper class women
                2. Women expected to serve under husbands
          2. Mughal art and architecture
             1. blended Muslim styles with those of other societies
             2. Mughal artists created miniatures – some of Christian religious subjects
             3. Architects blended white marble of Indian architecture
                1. W/ Muslim arches and domes
                2. Taj Mahal constructed by Shah Jahan as tomb for wife
             4. Dynastic patronage of the arts
             5. Substantial written works on Indian history and philosophy
   11. African Empires
       1. Political
       2. Social
       3. Case Study
          1. Kongo
          2. Benin
          3. Oyo
          4. Songhay