Changes

Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era

1. Changes
   1. Global commerce
   2. Communications
      1. Telegraph
      2. Telephone
      3. Radio
      4. National postal system
      5. Steamship
      6. Railroad
   3. Technology
2. Changes in patterns of world trade
   1. World Trade
      1. Introduction
         1. Manufactured goods of the west and raw materials used to produce them – focus
         2. Atlantic World
            1. Plantation system and exploitation of newly independent L. American nations
         3. Methods of extracting natural resources changes
            1. Railroads and roads constructed – can go to the interior
         4. Instead of small, independent farm plots by natives > large plantations
            1. Crops chosen based on needs of industrialized West
      2. Latin American Trade – increased significantly
         1. Profitable sugar, cotton, cacao plantations
         2. Increased importance of slavery
         3. Monroe Doctrine – Britain takes larger role in recipient of goods
            1. Cut out colonization by other European countries
            2. More mfg goods go to L. America for raw materials
         4. Beef exports increase – refrigerated railroad car
         5. Products
            1. Cuba – tobacco and sugar
            2. Brazil – sugar and coffee – later rubber
            3. Mexico – copper, silver
            4. Peru – guano
            5. Chile – grain, copper
            6. Argentine – beef, grain, hides, wool
         6. Large landholders benefit at expense of smaller, independent farmers
         7. Dependent on cheaper foreign goods – better quality, cheaper to produce
            1. Wealth monopolized by a few
         8. Foreign investment gives capital
            1. But…many industrial/transporation projects owned by foreigners
      3. Trade with the Islamic World – decreased significantly
         1. Ottoman Empire weakened
            1. Revolts
            2. Disinterest in industrialization
               1. Christian/Jews in Empire carry on trade independently
         2. Domestic system producers can’t compete with industrialized nations
         3. Threat of competition lead to reforms
            1. Tanzimet reforms – facilitated trade, but came too late
         4. Made dependent on European imports and influence
            1. Foreign investment to bolster economy
            2. Extraterritoriality – Europeans allowed in Ottoman major commercial centers
         5. Suez Canal makes Egypt a significant commercial/political power
      4. Qing China and the Opium Trade – trade imbalance shifts
         1. From 1644 to 19th century trade benefited China
            1. Controlled out of few ports – Canton primarily
            2. Trade in Chinese tea, silk, porcelain for silver – basis of economy
               1. Trade imbalance – extremely profitable for China
         2. Britain annoyed with trade imbalance
            1. Indian opium switches balance
            2. Now silver flows out of China
         3. After Opium Wars eventually China open to Europe
            1. Nations map out spheres of influence
            2. Extraterritoriality
      5. Russia and World Trade
         1. Occupy backward position in trade and technology
         2. Exported some grain to w. Europe for Western machinery
            1. Difficult to compete due to outdated agricultural methods
         3. Desire to compete in world trade led to end of serfdom in 1861
      6. Japanese Entrance into World Trade
         1. Second Perry expedition opened Japanese ports in 1854
         2. Japan industrialized
            1. Trade relations with Netherlands, Great Britain, Russia
            2. Depended more on imports of raw materials
      7. End of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
         1. Ended due to
            1. Enlightenment thought
            2. religious conviction
            3. slave revolt in Haiti
         2. British ended role first – 1807- then encouraged others later to end also
            1. Britain seized hundreds of slave ships
            2. Slavery continued to Cuba and Brazil
               1. Cooperation of African rulers
         3. Didn’t totally end until 1867
   2. Industrial Revolution
      1. What is it?
         1. Civilizations no longer principally agricultural/rural
         2. Mass production of goods by means of machine power – industrialization
         3. Importance of trade and commerce skyrocketed
         4. Urbanization
         5. Capitalism rules supreme
         6. Metaphoric revolution – takes decades – no clear-cut beginning or end
         7. But…can’t underestimate effect
            1. Changed life in Europe more thoroughly than political revolutions
            2. New machines at hands of ordinary people
            3. Effected how people work, where they lived, how they views political problems
            4. Forced West to spread practices to colonies and exploit colonies economically
      2. History
         1. Began in Great Britain in mid 1700s
            1. Great Britain has large domestic deposits of coal
               1. Japan lacks coal – needed territorial expansion
            2. Enclosure movement – removal of land from farming
               1. Common area gone – loss of livelihood for peasants
               2. Now private land for private gain – you have motivation - mine
         2. Causes
            1. Agricultural Revolution – Second Agricultural Revolution 18th century
               1. Improved farming techniques
               2. Up to half the population left farms for cities
                  1. New industrial jobs becoming available
               3. Why so much more crop yield?
                  1. High yield crops – potatoes, corn from New World
                  2. Crop rotation instead of leaving fallow
                  3. New technologies
                     1. New machines for plowing, seeding, reaping
                     2. Chemical fertilizers
            2. Increase in population
               1. More food available
               2. Less chance for famine
               3. Life expectancy rose – population increase
                  1. 50% growth to 190 million from 1700-1800
               4. Decreased death rate
                  1. improved medical care
                  2. nutrition
                  3. hygiene sanitation
            3. Improvements in technology
               1. New sources of energy
                  1. steam power
                     1. Invention of the steam engine – James Watt
                        1. Improved by Watt, started by others
                     2. availability of sources of coal to fuel machinery
                  2. natural gas and petroleum later
                  3. fed industrial and transportation improvements
               2. New materials
                  1. steel
               3. New methods
                  1. factory system
                  2. Put factory near water-power source
               4. Inventions had always been occurring, but so many happen in 18th century
               5. New inventions for textile industry
                  1. Flying shuttle – sped up weaving process - 1733
                  2. Spinning jenny – spins vast amount of thread – 1764
                  3. Cotton gin – Eli Whitney – 1793 – quick processing of cotton
            4. Protestant work ethic
               1. Earthly success is a sign of personal salvation
                  1. Acquisition of capital and development of industry
               2. Value of hard work
            5. Domestic system not as effective
               1. cotton woven into cloth at homes
               2. Middlemen drop off wool/cotton at homes
               3. Women then sell cloth to middlemen > buyers
            6. Philosophical – Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations
               1. Private ownership
               2. Let open market determine demand for goods and services
               3. free-market system/capitalism fits needs of individuals/nations
               4. laissez faire capitalism – government removes self from process
               5. Response to failing mercantilist policies
                  1. corrupt, inefficient
                  2. monarchies managed economies
         3. Phases
            1. Phase One
               1. Britain – 1780s – steam engine used to power textile machines
               2. Coal mining uses steam power
               3. James Watt patented designs in 1782 – efficient and relatively cheaper
            2. Phase Two
               1. Steam engine used in every economic field - adapted
                  1. “We sell what everyone desires and that is power.”
               2. Stimulate huge wave of invention and technological innovation
                  1. i. Transportation – steam ships, railroads
                  2. Electricity – telegraph – communications to the modern age
            3. Phase Three
               1. New energy sources, new raw materials and new inventions
               2. Bessemer Process – cheaper way to make steal – stronger/more useful
               3. Electricity overtakes steam and coal as energy source
               4. Commercial uses of petroleoum
         4. Factory System
            1. Replaces domestic system – putting out system
            2. Thousands of new products now created efficiently and inexpensively
               1. Interchangeable parts – Eli Whitney – machines and parts uniform
                  1. Repaired and replaced easily
               2. Assembly line
                  1. Add only one part to a finished product
      3. Transformative effects
         1. Vast numbers of Asians/Africans provide labor for plantations/mines
         2. Transportation Revolution
            1. Invention of the steam locomotive – 1820s
            2. Steamship – 1807
            3. Internal Combustion Engine – 1885 – Daimler – car
            4. Airplane – 1903 – speed of transportation increased a bit
         3. Urbanization
         4. Development of factory system
         5. New classes
            1. Birth of the working class – proletariat
               1. Masses who worked in factories, mines, other industry
               2. At first, made up of peasants who had abandoned agricultural work
               3. At first, poorly treated and barely compensated
                  1. Long hours – 14 hours a day, 6 days a week
                  2. Disgusting, crowded living conditions
                  3. Unsafe working conditions
                     1. fire, dangerous machines, poisonous/harmful materials
                  4. child labor common
            2. Rise of middle class
               1. merchants, bankers, factory owners, industrialists
               2. Became landowners of agriculture as well
                  1. Farmers rented, poor laborers employed
            3. Social status began to be determined more by wealth than family position
         6. Reform movements
            1. Number of people with influence (aristorcrats/middle class) see inhumanity
            2. Capitalism a positive, but need laws to keep abuses in check
            3. Government needs to act on behalf of the workers
            4. Some want to get rid of system, some want to merely reform it
               1. Some nations do both – capitalist and socialist
            5. Reform more possible in Great Britain/United States
               1. Has democracy, middle class, impact of Enlightenment
               2. Not so in Russia with autocracy
                  1. Marxism more attractive here
            6. Parliaments started passing laws that limited hours, child labor, safer working conditions
            7. Labor unions formed to bargain for the big 3 – or threaten to strike
               1. Factory owners realized happy, healthy, well-paid force productive
            8. Eventually led to communication revolution
               1. Telegraph
               2. Telephone
               3. Radio
         7. Major consequences
            1. countries with industrial technology had advanced military weapons
               1. Able to conquer people who did not have this technology
            2. countries needed access to raw materials to make finished products and markets
               1. colonies would fit both of these roles quite well
         8. Because started in Britain – Britain becomes dominant global nation of 19th century
         9. Need for communication improvements to facilitate organizing expanding businesses
            1. Telegraph – 1837 – communicate great distances in seconds
            2. Telephone – 1876 – Bell
            3. Radio – 1890s
            4. Lightbulb – 1879 – hey, we can work into the night
         10. Role of the individual changes
             1. Man not just working with machines, he becomes part of machine
                1. Working to the noise of machines
                2. Pace of work more rapid than at home
             2. Consistency of function more important than independent thought
         11. Abuse of labor
             1. Initially overworked, underpaid, unsafe working conditions
                1. 16 hour workdays, children as young as 6
         12. Living conditions change
             1. No longer fresh air and sunshine – air pollution and hazardous machinery
             2. No longer seasonal adjustments to work pattern – same product day after day
             3. Leads to despair and hopelessness
             4. Minimal police protection at first
         13. Literature created to reflect times
             1. Charles Dickens writes of social ills of industrialization
         14. Philosophical – Karl Marx – Communist Manifesto
             1. working class eventually revolt and take control of means of production
             2. Instruments of power – government, courts, police, Church on side of the rich
                1. uprising would make these instruments of power unnecessary
             3. saw flaw in capitalist system
         15. Conservative backlash – don’t like the changes
             1. Luddites – destroyed factory equipment, protested working conditions/wages
                1. Government exacts harsh punishments to prevent this type of protest
                   1. Sides with the wealthy…surprise
         16. Changes urban life
             1. bus service, sidewalks, street lights, steam heating of homes, icebox refrigeration, indoor plumbing, sewing machines, canned food, urban sewage systems, medicine
         17. Affected navies and armies of all countries
             1. Steam powered battleships, modern rifles, modern artillery, machine gun
             2. United States Civil War – first industrial war – 1861-1865
                1. Franco-Prussian – 1870-1871
         18. Influence of Industrial Nations over Nonindustrial
             1. Obviously they are conquered, forced
             2. Businessmen/industrialists struck deals with local aristocrats/politicians
                1. Encouraged monoculture – extraction of one, small set of crops/resources
                2. Monoculture – damages environment and retards economy
                3. “Banana Republic” – derogatory term
                4. Exploits native workers
                   1. Money ends up in hands of a small number of aristocrats/politician
         19. Changes after 1850
             1. Societies received higher wages, shorter working hours allowing leisure activities
                1. Leisure time led to popular interest in theater and sports
             2. Additional employment opportunities as secretaries, salespeople, clerical jobs
                1. Some filled by women, especially unmarried women
             3. Clothing more affordable – general population can now wear similar fashions
             4. Popular consumption led to advertising campaigns
      4. Differential timing in different societies
         1. Factors of production needed for industrialization - Britain
            1. Land – including natural resources such as coal and iron ore
            2. Labor – including thousands of dispossessed farmers evicted after enclosure
            3. Capital – banking and investment interests capable of funding costs of factories and machinery
            4. Entrepreneurship – groups of individuals with the knowledge of combinging land, labor and capital to establish factory production
         2. What geographic factors needed to industrialize
            1. Industrial growth measured by iron, coal, steel, cotton production – access?
            2. Next United States, then Western Germany, France, Netherlands, N. Italy
            3. Those in South and East Europe lagged behind – agriculture based
            4. Russia totally backward thanks to serfdom - reliance on agriculture
         3. United States
            1. By early 1800s textile factory system transported to US
            2. Production methods/technological improvements spurred industry/railroads
         4. other European nations
            1. France and Germany complex industrial economies in 19th century
            2. Russia remains agricultural country
               1. Government sponsored programs turn of the century
               2. Russian banking system and protective tariffs later to protect industry
               3. Russia ranked 4th in steel production by 1900
         5. Japan
            1. Partial Modernization under Tokugawa Japan
               1. Partially modernization both economically and socially
                  1. Population growth steady – increased urbanization
                  2. Agriculture – fewer people producing more – Western technique
                     1. Allowed for more working class – urbanization
                  3. Trade, commerce, manufacturing increasingly important
                  4. National infrastructure needed – roads, canals, ports
                  5. Merchant class emerges – becomes middle class
                  6. Awareness of scientific/technological knowledge from West – few
               2. Problems with partial modernization
                  1. Threatened 5% aristocracy
                     1. Urbanization, Western learning, growing merchant class
                  2. So…modernization controlled in early stages
                     1. Military class – samurai – control gunpowder
            2. Meiji Restoration – second half 19th century – quickly industrialized
               1. Outside forces forced change – Commodore Perry
                  1. Friendly words, but naval bombardment for show
                  2. Next five years, other European countries pressure Japan
                  3. Looks like they might be headed down path of other nations
               2. Samurai leaders in southern provinces push to end foreign influence
                  1. Sat-Cho Alliance – fires on foreign ships
                     1. Fired back by Europe – reason to overthrow shogun
                     2. Install Emperor Meiji to power
                        1. First emperor in 1000 years to have power
         6. Some Latin American countries
            1. Seen as sources for natural resources and markets
            2. Not so much as potential industrial nations
               1. Hampered by lack of local capital for investment
                  1. Industrialization would need to be financed by foreigners
         7. Eventually to Asia and Africa in 20th centuries
         8. Comparing Industrialization in Great Britain and Japan
            1. Sources of Capital
               1. Britain
                  1. private entrepreneurs, capitalists
                  2. Limited foreign investment
               2. Japan
                  1. Government investment in initial states
                  2. Zaibatsu – few wealthy banking, industrial families – developed large business interests
                     1. Conglomerates that bought up textile mills and factories
                  3. Limited foreign investment
            2. Energy Resources
               1. Britain
                  1. Large domestic deposits of coal for steam power
                  2. Large domestic deposits of iron for building machinery
                  3. Timber running out, had to move to coal
                     1. Coal mining required machine power to pump water
               2. Japan
                  1. Has to import energy sources
            3. Availability of Technology
               1. Developed originally in Britain
                  1. Textile mills
                  2. First steam engine
                  3. First steel-making process
                  4. Replaced other methods of powering machines
                     1. wind, water, animal
               2. Japan
                  1. Had to import machinery
            4. Pool of workers
               1. Britain
                  1. almost doubling population in 1700s – 5>9 million
                  2. clothing industry – piecework by poorly paid women – sweatshops
                  3. Ennclosure Acts – pool of laborless workers
               2. Japan
                  1. Also rapid population growth
                  2. Clothing industry – sweatshops as well
            5. Transportation System
               1. Britain
                  1. Internal railway system
                  2. Canals
                  3. Shipping companies for export
                  4. Small size
               2. Japan
                  1. Internal railway system
                  2. Shipping companies for export
            6. Societal Changes
               1. Britain
                  1. Reform movements
                     1. Class tension, labor unions, socialism
                     2. Women’s suffrage
                     3. Universal education
                  2. Middle class
                  3. Leisure time
               2. Japan
                  1. some increased opportunity for education for women
                  2. continued reliance on traditional family life
                     1. subordinate position of women
                  3. Class tensions
            7. Summary of differences
               1. Both followed similar paths, but Japan on fast forward
                  1. A few decades what it took Britain a century
                  2. Didn’t have to invent everything – just implement advances
               2. Private corporations rose up
                  1. Industrialists like Mitsubishi family
               3. Factories built
               4. Urbanization increased dramatically
               5. Reform instituted
      5. Mutual relation of industrial and scientific developments
         1. Inventions pushed industrial revolution
         2. Industrialization
            1. Made European nations richer > more technologically adept > boosted need for scientific knowledge to explore
            2. New weaponry in hands of westerners
         3. New inventions needed to extract resources from earth – colonies
         4. Cotton gin made textile revolution possible
            1. Extraction of clean cotton thread from raw cotton balls
      6. Commonalities
         1. Goes through the same process whether 18th century Britain as 20th century Nigeria
            1. Factories built in areas near towns/cities
               1. These built near sources of power, transportation, pool of workers
            2. Shift of people from countryside to city - urbanization
               1. Due to…caused by…
                  1. Poor harvests
                  2. Too little land
                  3. Too many people to feed
            3. Middle class forms
               1. Factory managers
               2. Shopowners
               3. Professionals – lawyers, accountants
            4. Brutal working conditions/unsafe and unhealthy living condition leads to reform
               1. Political reform
               2. Socioeconomic reform
                  1. Muckrakers – propaganda writers
                  2. Settlement houses – local buildings for kids/moms – YMCAs
      7. Comparing scientific revolution to industrial revolution
         1. Both changed the world
            1. Knowledge spread and improvements made across cultures
            2. Though there were patents, scientists/inventors built on ideas of colleagues
            3. Collaborative effort allows for constant improvement
         2. Scientific Revolution – discovering, learning, evaluating, understanding the natural world
         3. Industrial Revolution – applying that understanding to natural ends
      8. Industrial Revolution Flow Chart
         1. Effects
            1. Increase in need for resources and markets
               1. Colonization
                  1. Rise of nationalism
                     1. Independence movements and revolutions
            2. Increase in urbanization
               1. Increase in social unrest
                  1. Rise of nationalism
                     1. Independence movements and revolutions
                  2. Changes in social thought – from Enlightenment ideals
                     1. Women’s Emancipation movements
                     2. End of the slave trade
                     3. Rise of unions and laws to protect workers
                     4. Rise of Marxism
                     5. Independence movements and revolutions
            3. Improves agricultural techniques which then fuels more industrial revolution
   3. Changes in patterns of world trade
      1. European nations seize trading networks from local/regional control
         1. Connected them into a truly global network