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History - Russia Revolution Flashcards

734475621	Czar who turned Russia into a police state	Alexander III	1
734475622	Under Russian Marxism, the group of workers who would rule the country	Proletariats	2
734475623	Radical Marxist group willing to sacrifice everything for change	Bolsheviks	3
734475624	Main Leader of the Bolsheviks	Lenin	4
734475625	Another name for the Revolution of 1905 in St. Petersburg	Bloody Sunday	5
734475626	Alleged healer who Czarina Alexandra allowed to make decisions in Nicholas II's absence	Rasputin	6
734475627	In russia, local councils consisting of workers, peasants and soldiers	Soviets	7
734475628	Revolutionary leader who commanded the Bolshevik Red Army	Leon Trotsky	8
734475629	New name for the Bolsheviks after the revolution	Communist Party	9
734475630	Another name for temporary government	Provisional Government	10
734475631	Lenins's successor who worked to control every aspect of life in the Soviet Union	Joseph Stalin	11
734475632	A government that takes total, centralized control over all aspects of public and private life	Totalitarianism	12
734475633	Stalin's campaign of terror designed to eliminate anyone who threatened his power	the Great Purge	13
734475634	A system in which the government makes all economic decisions	a command economy	14
734475635	Stalin's proposals for the development of the Soviet Union's economy	Five-Year Plan	15
734475636	The agricultural revolution in the USSR combined privately-owned farms into large, government-owned farms into large, government-owned farms	Collective Farms	16

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IGCSE History Russia 1924-53 MCM PMc Flashcards

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806203368	Stalin	A long-time Bolshevik from a working class background who emerged as the leader of the USSR after Lenin's death. This was partly because he was not seen as a threat by the other candidates until too late, partly because he held key positions in the party, partly because he looked like a moderate who supported the NEP and collective leadership, partly because of luck and partly because of political maneuvers like telling Trotsky the wrong date for Lenin's funeral and allying first with Kamenev and Zinoviev to defeat Trotsky, then with Bukharin and Rykov to defeat Kamenev and Zinoviev before finally turning on them as well.	1
806203369	General Secretary	This was the position held by Stalin from 1922. It looked like a boring administrative position when it was first created. Only later did people realize that it gave him enormous power, especially when he was also the head of the Orgburo from 1919. Stalin was the one who decided what would be discussed at Central Committee meetings. He was also in charge of party membership, so he could admit his own supporters. He could influence which delegates form local party organizations got selected to represent their regions at national organizations, and he decided which party members got which positions in the government. All of these powers helped Stalin to assume the leadership of the USSR.	2
806203370	Trotsky	One of the contenders for the leadership in 1924. He had been in charge of organizing the October Revolution and commanding The Red Army during the Civil War. Lenin called him the most able member of the Central Committee. On the other hand, he had only joined the Bolsheviks in 1917, he was Jewish and, as the frontrunner, all the other candidates ganged up on him. Also, he was reluctant to engage in political scheming and he was often ill and away from Moscow during the crucial time.	3
806203371	Permanent Revolution	A policy advocated by Trotsky in the 1920s. He argued that Socialism could only survive in the USSR if it quickly spread to other countries. To many in the USSR, this looked like a recipe for constant war. Stalin's counter-policy was more popular.	4
806203372	Socialism in One Country	A policy advocated by Stalin to counter Trotsky's policy of "Permanent Revolution". He advocated building up the USSR's economy before worrying about spreading Socialism to other countries. This helped to gain Stalin support in the right wing of the party, because it looked as though Stalin advocated continuing the NEP.	5
806203373	Lenin's Testament	A letter by Lenin to the Central Committee of the Communist Party. It was started in 1922 after Lenin had had a stroke that left him unable to speak. He added a postscript in January 1923. He called Trotsky and Stalin the most able members of the Central Committee, but said Trotsky had "excessive self-assurance" and that Stalin had concentrated unlimited authority in his hands and might not be "capable of using that authority with sufficient caution. In his postscript, he wrote: "Stalin is too rude and this defect, although quite tolerable in our midst and in dealing among us Communists, becomes intolerable in a Secretary-General. That is why I suggest that the comrades think about a way of removing Stalin from that post...." This letter also criticized Kamenev and Zinoviev, which may explain why they helped persuade the Central Committee not to publish it more widely in 1924. About Bukharin he said: "Bukharin is not only a most valuable and major theorist of the Party; he is also rightly considered the favorite of the whole Party, but his theoretical views can be classified as fully Marxist only with the great reserve, for there is something scholastic about him."	6
806203374	Zinoviev	One of the contenders for the leadership in 1924. This man was a long time member of the Bolshevik party (he was with Lenin on the train in April 1917. He was the Leningrad Party Secretary, chairman of the Comintern and a member of the Politburo. On the other hand, he had disagreed with Lenin on the October Revolution, he was not great thinker and he was seen as vain, incompetent and cowardly. He was on the left wing of the party, in favour of getting rid of the NEP. He initially allied with Stalin to help outmaneuver Trotsky. Later he allied with Trotsky to protest against Stalin's policies, but only succeeded in getting himself kicked out of the party. He managed to get back in, only to be executed in the first show trial in 1936.	7
806203375	Kamenev	One of the contenders for the leadership in 1924. This man was a long time member of the Bolshevik party, a member of the Politburo, and the Commissar for Foreign Trade. On the other hand, he had disagreed with Lenin on the April Theses and the October Revolution. He was on the left wing of the party, in favour of getting rid of the NEP. He initially allied with Stalin to help outmaneuver Trotsky. Later he allied with Trotsky to protest against Stalin's policies, but only succeeded in getting himself kicked out of the party. He managed to get back in, only to be executed in the first show trial in 1936.	8
806203376	Bukharin	One of the younger Bolshevik leaders at the time of Lenin's death, this man was described in Lenin's "testament" as "the biggest and most valuable theoretician in the Party" and "the favourite of the whole party". He was on the right wing of the party, favouring continuing the NEP. He would eventually be executed in a show trial in 1938. He was posthumously rehabilitated after Stalin's death.	9
806203377	Lenin's Funeral	This occurred in January 1923. Stalin used this event to embarrass Trotsky by telling him that it would take place too soon for Trotsky to be able to travel to Moscow to attend (when in fact the event was a day later than Stalin said and Trotsky should have been there) . He also used this event to set himself up as Lenin's natural successor. He served as a pallbearer and made a long speech that is often called the "Lenin Oath", vowing to continue Lenin's work.	10
806203378	Kolkhoz	A type of collective farm that consisted of between 50 and 100 households. This type of farm was run by an elected committee. Land and livestock were pooled and peasants farmed collectively, but each family had a private plot of up to one acre on which they could grow vegetables and keep a cow, a pig and a chicken. This was the most common type of collective farm. There were 250,000 of these by 1937. The private plots provided 52% of Russia's vegetables, 57% of Russia's fruit, 70% of Russia's meat and 71 % of Russia's milk.	11
806203379	Sovkhoz	A type of collective farm in which the land was owned and run by the state. The farm was run by a state-appointed manager and the peasants worked as employees for fixed wages. Originally the government wanted most of the peasants on this type of farm, but the peasants preferred the kolkhoz.	12
806203380	Toz	A type of collective farm where peasants owned land individually but shared machinery and cooperated in activities like sowing and harvesting. This type of farm was reasonably common before 1930, but few farms of this type survived collectivization.	13
806203381	OGPU	The secret police from 1922 until 1934. (The Cheka acquired a bad reputation in the Civil War, so the organization was renamed in 1922.) This organization was important for carrying out collectivization, dekulakization and grain seizures during the famine of 1932-3.	14
806203382	Kulaks	Better-off peasants (officially those who employed other peasants to work for them, but this was a loose definition). They could be expected to oppose collectivization. They were used as scapegoats to help unite the poorer peasants behind collectivization. Also, by confiscating their farms the government got he start-up land and equipment for the collective farms. Finally, fear of receiving the same treatment as the kulaks were receiving "convinced" the rest of the peasants to collectivize.	15
806203383	Dekulakization	This term refers to the campaign to eradicate the class of better-off peasants as part of the drive to collectivize Russia. This often involved shooting the adult males. Others were sentenced to prison camps. In most cases, whole families were deported to Siberia. About 10 million people were deported to Siberia as a result of this campaign.	16
806203384	Famine of 1932-3	This was a direct short-term result of collectivization. The government took more grain from the countryside to feed the cities and to export, even though grain production had dropped because of the disruption caused by collectivization. About 13 million peasants died.	17
806203385	Production of grain during and after collectivization	The government hoped this would increase as a result of efficiencies and mechanization. However, it dropped initially. By 1940 it had increased beyond 1928 levels, but it still lagged behind countries with capitalistic farming practices. 1928: 73.3 million tonnes 1929: 71.7 million tonnes 1930: 83.5 million tonnes 1931: 69.5 million tonnes 1932: 69.6 million tonnes 1933: 68.4 million tonnes 1934: 67.6 million tonnes 1935: 75 million tonnes 1940: 95 million tonnes	18
806203386	Procurement of grain during and after collectivization	This refers to the grain the government was able to take to feed the cities and to export. It increased as a result of collectivization, providing adequate food for the industrial workforce and food to export to raise money to buy machinery. 1928: 10.8 million tonnes 1929: 16.1 million tonnes 1930: 22.1 million tonnes 1931: 22.8 million tonnes 1932: 18.5 million tonnes 1933: 22.6 million tonnes	19
806203387	Gosplan	This was the name of the state planning agency, in charge of setting targets and allocating resources for the five year plans.	20
806203388	First Five Year Plan	This was a plan to industrialize Russia rapidly. It lasted from 1928-1932 (It was declared completed a year ahead of schedule.) this plan emphasized heavy industries (the industries needed to provide fuel and raw materials for other industries). Although the targets were not met (they were ridiculously ambitious), coal and iron production both almost doubled, electricity nearly tripled, 1500 new industrial plants were built and more than 100 new towns sprang up.	21
806203389	Second Five Year Plan	This was a plan to industrialize Russia rapidly. It lasted from 1933-1937. This plan emphasized heavy industries (the industries needed to provide fuel and raw materials for other industries) but also some secondary industries such as metallurgy. Transportation and communication improvements were also an important part of this plan. The targets were generally a bit less ambitious than the first plan. Again, not many of the targets were actually achieved, but there was impressive growth in all targeted areas. 4,500 new enterprises opened. Coal and iron production doubled and steel production more than tripled.	22
806203390	Third Five Year Plan	This was a plan to industrialize Russia rapidly. It lasted from 1937-1941 (It was interrupted by the Second World War.) This plan ended up emphasizing the production of armaments as the international situation got more threatening. Oil production targets were not met, leading to a fuel shortage. This plan also suffered from the loss of qualified personnel during the purges. Nevertheless, growth continues in most sectors of the economy.	23
806203391	Dnieper Dam	A huge hydroelectric project begun during the first five year plan. It was the largest hydroelectric project in Europe when it came online in 1932. It was built under the supervision of an American specialist, which demonstrates Stalin's willingness to employ outside expertise to serve the needs of industrialization.	24
806203392	Moscow-Volga Canal	A canal linking Moscow to the Volga River (which in turn links it to the Black sea, the Baltic sea, and the Caspian sea.) It also provides about half of Moscow's water supply. It was dug during the second five year plan 1932-7. Most of the workers were gulag prisoners.	25
806203393	Managers	Under the five year plans, these individuals were appointed to run the various state run enterprises and factories (although it ran counter to the workers' control which many workers expected from Communism). Those who met their targets were rewarded with perks like better housing and cars. However, they frequently got blamed when targets were not met (whether or not it was reasonable to blame them).	26
806203394	Wreckers and Saboteurs	These were standard terms for the people who got the blame whenever enterprises failed to meet their targets under the five year plans. When this happened, workers were routinely rounded up almost at random, given show trials and either executed of deported to forced labour camps. As a result, everyone covered up mistakes and reported inflated production figures.	27
806203395	Shakhty Trial	A show trial in the Donbass coal mining region in 1928. When the mines fell behind on their target, 53 engineers were accused of conspiracy to wreck the coal mining industry. 5 of them were executed and the rest imprisoned. This was the first of many show trials directed at "wreckers and saboteurs" when enterprise failed to meet their targets under the five year plans.	28
806203396	Stakhanov	A coal miner who managed to mine 102 tonnes of coal in a single shift - 14 times the expected amount. This feat was publicized in newspapers and posters. He was rewarded with perks like better housing, free holidays and cash bonuses. Other workers were encouraged to follow his example. (Actually, the extraordinary amount the man managed to mine was partly because he was provided with extra helpers to help move the coal that had already been mined out of the way and shore up the tunnel so he could mine more.)	29
806203397	Stakhanovites	These were workers who exceeded their production targets. They were rewarded with special status and perks like free holidays, cash bonuses and better housing. This was not very socialist. It shows how Stalin was willing to sacrifice ideology for the sake of production.	30
806203398	Forced Labour	A lot of the hardest work in the industrialization campaign was done by this method. Prisoners sent to gulags were used to build dams and canals, mines, etc. They did not have to be paid. They were motivated by fear of physical punishment or being deprived of food. These workers' fate also helped convince the other workers to work harder.	31
806203399	Magnitogorsk	A new city built near huge iron ore deposits in the Ural mountains. It was built during the first Five Year Plan and it became a huge centre for iron and steel. On the other hand, working and living conditions for the workers were appalling, at least in the early years.	32
806203400	Great Purges	Mass arrests and of millions of Soviet citizens between 1934 and 1938. Some were shot and others sent to labour camps. This created a large pool of forced labourers to help with industrialization. It also created an atmosphere of fear and fanatical loyalty to Stalin.	33
806203401	Kirov	A leading Communist and a good friend of Stalin. He was appointed to the Politburo in 1930. In 1932, he argued against executing party members who had called for Trotsky to be reinstated. At the 17th Party Congress in 1934, he argued that the government should release people who had been imprisoned for opposing collectivization and the Five Year Plans. He was approached by party members who wanted him to replace Stalin - he refused. In the elections to the Central Committee only 3 people voted against him, the fewest of any candidate, whereas Stalin got 292 negative votes, the most of any candidate. He was assassinated in suspicious circumstances a few months later. Stalin responded to his death by accusing thousands of Party members of conspiring to assassinate him. This was the beginning of the Great Purges and the show trials.	34
806203402	Show Trials	This refers to three trials of top Bolshevik leaders accused of crimes against the USSR. They were broadcast to the world on the radio and were also filmed. The leaders confessed to a variety of terrible crimes and were all found guilty and almost all sentenced to be shot. First: 1936 - Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 others. Second: 1937 - 17 leaders Third: 1938: Bukharin, Rykov, Yagoda and 18 others.	35
806203403	NKVD	Literally the "People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs", this was the name of the USSR Secret Police between 1934 and 1946. This organization was able to operate independently of judicial control, often imprisoning, torturing and executing people without any trail. It was the organization responsible for carrying out the great terror and the purges and running the gulags.	36
806203404	Tukhachevsky	A Soviet Field Marshall and "Hero of the Civil War" who had had serious disagreements with Stalin during the Civil War. In 1937 he and seven other generals were executed. This marked the beginning of the Purge of the Armed Forces.	37
806203405	Purge of the Armed Forces	This took place in 1937-38. Most of the top officers of the army and navy were either imprisoned or shot, including three of the five Field Marshalls, 90% of the Generals and eight of the nine Admirals. This ensured that the army could not form an effective opposition to Stalin, but it also weakened the army at a crucial period in the lead-up to World War II. This perceived weakness of the Soviet army may have encouraged Hitler to attack in 1941	38
806203406	Gulags	These were labour camps established all over the USSR in the late 1920s. Between 1929 and 1953 about 14 million people passed through these. Many of the prisoners died either during their sentences or shortly after being released. These camps held those accused of being Kulaks, "wreckers and saboteurs", petty criminals, political prisoners and those convicted of serious criminal offenses.	39
806203407	Yagoda	Head of the NKVD from 1934-1936. He was arrested in 1937. In 1938 he was one of the defendants in the third show trial. He was executed for various trumped up crimes against the state. The real reason for his execution seems to have been that he was not ruthless enough about arresting Stalin's targets. For instance, he released evidence from interrogations that suggested some of the accused might be innocent and he expressed sympathy for Bukharin.	40
806203408	Yezhov	Head of the NKVD from 1936-1938. He was known as the "bloody dwarf". One old Communist once said of him "In the whole of my long life I have never seen a more repellant personality". During his administration of the NKVD, the purges accelerated dramatically and quotas were given to administrators of districts. The quotas even specified that 28 % of those arrested were to be show and the rest sentenced to ten years in the gulags. He also presided over the purge of the armed forces. In 1938, Stalin blamed this man for purging excessive numbers of people, he lost his post in 1938 and was shot in 1940.	41
806203409	Beria	This man was head of the NKVD from 1938 to 1953. He presided over the winding down of the purges and the purge of the NKVD (who were blamed for the excesses of the purges.) He became one of Stalin's most important lieutenants. In 1953 it appeared that Stalin was preparing to move against him as he had against so many others, and there is some evidence to suggest that this man may have poisoned Stalin to save himself. After Stalin's death he was briefly part of a team of three leaders running the USSR, but was quickly arrested and executed by political rivals in 1953.	42
806203410	Article 58	A clause added to the USSR's penal code in 1928 that allowed for the arrest of people accused of counter-revolutionary or anti-Soviet activity. The phrasing of the clause was so vague that almost anyone could be arrested for violating it. Many political prisoners during the purges were convicted of crimes under this clause.	43
806203411	Socialist Realism	A type of art which all Soviet artists were forced to produce during Stalin's rule. This type of art had to be easily understood (not impressionistic or avant-garde) and had to glorify Socialism and the role of the workers.	44
806203412	Short History of the USSR	A school history text book produced under Stalin's regime. This emphasized Stalin's role in the revolution and removed figures like Trotsky altogether. In this way, education and History itself were used to serve the cult of Stalin.	45
806203413	Orthodox Church	This had been the official religion of Russia under the Tsars. Under both Lenin and Stalin, it was suppressed, with persecutions accelerating under Stalin. Most of its bishops were arrested during the purges and spreading religious ideas was illegal. During the war, the bishops were released and churches were reopened to help keep up morale.	46
806203414	Blitzkrieg	"Lightning War" A tactic used by the Germans in the early part of World War II, featuring surprise attack, use of tanks and motorized infantry to break through and advance quickly, before the defenders have time to react, use of paratroopers behind enemy lines to capture key bridges and telegraph stations, disrupt enemy communications and cause chaos. and use of air raids to knock out enemy air fields while the 'planes are still on the ground and cause chaos and confusion by attacking other targets. These tactics allowed the Germans to advance into the USSR rapidly in 1941, but unfortunately for them the USSR is simply too big to be subdued by such tactics.	47
806203415	Cult of Personality	This term refers to the glorification of a leader as a type of super-being. This was encouraged in the USSR under Stalin by parades, speeches, films, statues, posters, paintings, songs, radio, and even History books. The constant repetition of the same message over and over made it seem true. Even the National Anthem was revised to include Stalin.	48
806203416	Stalingrad	A battle over a city in the oil-producing region in the Volga valley. It lasted from July 1942 to February 1943. Between July and November, the Germans took most of the city, but failed to completely drive out the Russian defenders. In November, the Russians sent two armies to surround the city. Hitler refused to let the German soldiers withdraw, so they were trapped with dwindling supplies for two months of fighting in the middle of winter. Finally, the 91,000 surviving German soldiers surrendered in 1943. Only 5000 of these prisoners would survive the war. This was the first major defeat for the German army and marked the turning point of the war on the eastern front.	49
806203417	Kursk	The last major German offensive on the Eastern front, this took place in July and August of 1943. It is the largest tank battle in history. After initial advances, the Germans were driven back. They lost more tanks than could be replaced by German production. From that point onward, the Germans were in full retreat in the Eastern front.	50
806203418	Nazi-Soviet Pact	An agreement between Germany and the USSR in 1939, which involved them dividing Poland between them and dividing Europe into "spheres of influence". Both also pledged to remain neutral if the other got involved in a war. This agreement made it possible for Hitler to invade Poland in 1939, which in turn prompted France, Britain, and most importantly Canada to declare war on Germany. It also seems to have convince Stalin that Hitler would not attack the USSR, which resulted in his being taken by surprise in 1941.	51
806203419	Weather	This more than any other factor helped to halt the German advance in 1941. In October, heavy rains turned the unpaved Russian roads to mud, preventing German vehicles from moving and in November the onset of winter (for which the German were completely unprepared) literally froze the Germans in their tracks as even their fuel didn't work at Russian winter temperatures.	52
806203420	Partisans	These are militias or bands of fighters which formed in German-occupied USSR. They attempted to harass the German army and its supply lines, as well as attacking Soviet citizens who collaborated with the Germans. German brutality toward the occupied peoples helped to encourage these militias. The Germans tended to respond to attacks by these militias by executing hostages or random civilians, which in turn increased support for these militias.	53
806203421	Hitler's Mistakes	These helped to ensure that the USSR would survive the German invasion. For instance: 1) The invasion was launched too late in the year, so winter came before the objectives had been taken. 2) He split his force into three parts instead of concentrating on one objective. 3) No provision was made for the winter conditions. 4) Brutality toward the conquered people encouraged partisan activity. 5) He refused to allow the sixth army to fall back before they could be surrounded at Stalingrad in November 1942. This resulted in the loss of this whole army.	54
806203422	Cold War	This was one result of the war. It was a state of tension between the USA (and allies) and the USSR (and allies) that lasted from 1945 to about 1989. After the end of the war, these two countries were clearly the most powerful in the world. They were known as "superpowers" and each exerted powerful influence on its allies. Both sides built up arms and looked for ways to expand their influence around the world.	55
806203423	Buffer States	This term refers to the countries that lay between the USSR and Germany. Before World War II they had been neutral or anti-Soviet which had made it easier for Hitler to expand towards the USSR. After the war, Stalin was determined that governments of these supposedly independent countries would be "friendly" to the USSR, so that if the USSR were attacked again these states would help protect the USSR. The USA accepted this in principle, but opposed the policy when it became clear that Stalin was imposing undemocratic Communist regimes in all of these countries.	56
806203424	Satellite States	This is another result of the war. This term refers to countries like Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, East Germany, Poland and Hungary during the Cold War. In theory, these were independent countries, but in practice they were completely controlled by the USSR.	57
806203425	Iron Curtain	A phrase coined by former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to describe the boundary between US- dominated Western Europe and USSR-controlled Eastern Europe. This division existed from about 1949-1989. Citizens of Eastern European countries were rarely given permission to travel to the West.	58
806203426	NATO	Literally the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This was formed in 1949 after the USSR had made an attempt to force the USA, France and Britain out of Berlin. It was an alliance of Western European and North American states *dominated by the USA) aimed at defending against further Soviet expansion. In 1955, West Germany joined this alliance.	59
806203427	Warsaw Pact	An alliance of Eastern European states (dominated by the USSR) dedicated to defending the territory against attack from the West. It was also dedicated to maintaining Socialism in its member states. It was formed in 1955 after West Germany joined NATO.	60
806203428	Tartars	One example of an ethnic group that welcomed the German invasion of the USSR. When the USSR retook the area, they deported this whole group to Siberia en masse. They did the same to several other ethnic groups considered potentially disloyal.	61
806203429	Scorched Earth Policy	The policy adopted by the USSR as they retreated before the German advance in 1941. They tried to destroy everything as they retreated in order to leave the Germans with nothing to live on. The Germans followed a similar policy in 1943-44 as they retreated. This was devastating for the civilians in the path of the fighting.	62
806203430	Jews	During the war, leaders of this ethnic group were encouraged to help the USSR form ties with the USA. Immediately after the war they were systematically persecuted, and the ties they had made with foreigners were used as evidence that they were not fully loyal to the USSR.	63
806203431	Fourth Five-Year Plan	This economic plan ran from 1946-50. It focused on rebuilding agriculture and heavy industry, but also managed to rehouse 2.5 million people who had been made homeless by the war. Stalin claimed that it had exceeded its targets in 1950 and that production levels had reached the level of 1940. This wasn't true, but the plan was definitely a success.	64
806203432	Fifth Five-Year Plan	This economic plan ran from 1951-55. It was modestly successful, but it suffered because a lot of funds were devoted to the defense industry as the Cold War got going. Also, too much effort was put into showy building projects.	65
806203433	Professor Vinogradov	Stalin's personal physician, who was arrested in 1952 for suggesting that Stalin take it easy. This shows that repression continued after the war. It also backfired on Stalin, because he had no personal physician on hand when he had a fatal stroke in 1953.	66
806203434	Effects of the Second World War on Stalin	Both of the leader of the USSR and the Communist party gained tremendous prestige from the victory in the war.	67
806203435	Effects of the Second World War on the army	During the war, these men had tremendous power and prestige and direct access to Stalin. Immediately after the war, they were demoted and sidelined to prevent their becoming a threat to Stalin. The political commissars in the army, who had lost power during the war, were restored to the powers they had had before the war - any commands by military officers had to be approved by these commissars.	68
806203436	Effects of the Second World War on Industry	25% of Russia's factories and transport facilities were lost - more in the areas directly affected by the war. By 1942 80% of Russia's industry was devoted solely to the war effort. Russia's wartime production was very impressive, but it diverted massive amounts of resources from other industries.	69
806203437	Effects of the Second World War on Agriculture	102,000 collective farms were destroyed, along with 17 million cattle. Crops, equipment and infrastructure were destroyed by the retreating Germans. Also, there was a shortage of male agricultural workers. In many places, after collective farms were destroyed, individual peasants just took the land and began farming privately. Even in 1950 after massive rebuilding efforts almost half of agricultural production came from private farming, either on plots in Kolkhozs or from entire private farms.	70
806203438	Stavka	The special Soviet High Command, which was set up in 1941 to oversee all military operations. It was modeled on the command structure in Tsarist Russia. Stalin was the chair, and leading ministers, Generals and Admirals made up the members. During the war, these men wielded an enormous amount of power and influence due to their access to Stalin and his need for their advice. After the war, he disbanded this body and demoted many of the generals.	71
806203439	GKO	The State Committee of Defence, which was set up in 1941 to oversee the Russian war effort, including the political end economic aspects of the war. Its members were high-ranking ministers and party members. During the war they wielded a lot of power, much of which they lost when Stalin disbanded this body at the end of the war.	72
806203440	Zhadovshchina	A period of repression and purges between 1946 and 1948. Many leading party and administrative officials were purged.	73
806203441	Leningrad Affair	A purge of over 1000 leading party officials and administrators from Leningrad were arrested in July of 1949 and many were executed. This was done partly because Tito (communist ruler of Yugoslavia who had just fallen out with Stalin) had visited Leningrad and partly because they had been trying to act independently of direction from Moscow.	74
806203442	Mingrelian Case	In this 1951 purge, Georgian communists were accused of encouraging Mingrelian tribesmen to break away from the USSR. This was probably a made-up charge aimed at reducing Beria's power, because Beria was from there. Many leading Georgian communists were purged.	75

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IGCSE History Russia 1881-1914 MCM PMc Flashcards

MCM Year 10-11 History

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806279351	Autocracy	A system of government in which a king or queen has absolute power.	1
806279352	Russian Orthodox Church	A Christian denomination with slightly different beliefs from the Roman Catholic Church. Its leaders were appointed by the Tsar and it preached that the Tsar was appointed by God.	2
806279353	Slavophile	Someone who believes in "slavism" - the idea that Russian ways are superior to "Western" ways.	3
806279354	Pan-Slavism	The idea that all the Slavic people (Russians, Finns, Ukrainians, Serbs, Belarussians, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Bulgarians etc, should be united. (Presumably under Russian rule.)	4
806279355	Land Commandant	Alexander III introduced this position to increase the power of the Tsar and the nobility against the common people. Men appointed to this position were always form the nobility and they could overrule the zemstva.	5
806279356	Pogroms	Mob attacks on Jews that were semi-officially supported by the government. (Sometimes government officials helped to incite them. Other times they sanctioned them by failing to punish the perpetrators.)These were frequent during the reigns of Alexander III and Nicholas II.	6
806279357	Pale of Settlement	An area of the Russian empire (present day Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Bessarabia, Ukraine and Eastern Russia) in which Jews were invited to settle in 1791. (Jews were not welcome in other parts of the empire.)	7
806279358	Zionist Movement	A movement that began in Russia around 1897. Its aim was to make a homeland for the Jewish people in what is now Israel. This movement would eventually succeed in 1948.	8
806279359	Bund	A Jewish Socialist party founded in Russia in 1897 in response to the Anti-Semitic policies of Nicholas II and Alexander III. They later joined the Mensheviks.	9
806279360	Tariff	Tax on imports designed to make them more expensive than goods produced within the country. By raising these taxes, Alexander III encouraged Russian industries.	10
806279361	Coal	Production of this important industrial fuel source more than tripled during the reign of Alexander III (1881-1894) and increased from about 7,000 million kg to about 11,000 million kg between 1881 and 1900. This demonstrates that Russia was industrializing quickly between 1881 and 1914.	11
806279362	Pig Iron	Production of this important industrial material more than doubled during the reign of Alexander III (1881-1894) and almost doubled again between 1881 and 1900. This demonstrates that Russia was industrializing quickly between 1881 and 1914.	12
806279363	Railway	Construction of this important modern form of transport was encouraged by Alexander II, Alexander III and Nicholas II. 1546 km were built between 1881 and 1890. This shows that Russia was industrializing quickly, but it was still far behind Western countries of a comparable size.	13
806279364	Stolypin	Prime Minister of Russia from 1906-1911. He established military tribunals to suppress the ongoing revolutionary activity in 1906 by hanging thousands of dissidents. When the first two Dumas resisted passing legislation proposed by the Tsar, he advised the Tsar to dissolve them. In 1907 he changed the franchise to prevent the poor from voting for the thirds and fourth Dumas. He reformed agriculture by breaking up the mirs and setting up a peasants' bank to help peasants to buy land. This benefitted about 15% of the peasants, who established larger, more productive farms. Many of the peasants who sold their land ended up in the cities, increasing the industrial work force. He clashed with the Tsar because he wanted to increase the power of the local zemstva. He was assassinated in 1911 by a Social Revolutionary who had been an informant for the Okhrana.	14
806279365	kulaks	Rich peasants. Most of these were peasants who had taken advantage of Stolypin's reforms to accumulate more land. Unlike the ordinary peasants, they produced significantly more than they needed to feed their families, and this surplus was sold to provide food for the growing city populations. Stolypin hoped that these peasants would eventually be in a position to buy the products of Russian industry as well. During the collectivization campaign, Stalin eliminated this class of peasant.	15
806279366	Rasputin	A starets from Siberia who appeared to be able to control the Tsar's son's haemophilia. As a result, he became very close to the Royal family from 1907 onwards. He had a terrible reputation as a drunkard and a sex maniac, so his perceived influence was very damaging to the royal family's reputation. He was assassinated in 1916.	16
806279367	Lena Goldfield Massacre	An incident in 1912 when troops attacked unarmed striking miners in Siberia, killing 170 workers and wounding 373. This caused more workers' protests all over Russia from 1912-1914, and further hurt the reputation of the Tsar among ordinary Russians.	17
806279368	Populists	A movement formed around 1874. It tried to encourage the peasants to rebel against the government and establish a socialist system, but it was not particularly successful. Peasants were conservative and it took a great deal to persuade them to become revolutionaries. This movement later gave rise to the Social Revolutionary Party.	18
806279369	People's Will	This was the extreme branch of the populist movement, which broke from the Populists in 1879. Its aim was to encourage revolution by assassinating unpopular officials. In 1881, its operatives assassinated Tsar Alexander II	19
806279370	Russification	Policy followed by Tsar Alexander III and Tsar Nicholas II that aimed to deal with the non-Russian minorities in the Russian empire by trying to make them become Russian. Alexander II also applied this policy in Poland after the 1863 revolt	20
806279371	Mir	A village commune in Russia. When the serfs were emancipated, they weren't given land individually. Instead, the land was owned by the village collectively. This meant that peasants couldn't sell their land or make decisions freely.	21
806279372	Zemstvo	An elected local government in the countryside. These were introduced after the emancipation of the serfs. Their mandate was to run local affairs like schools, hospitals, etc. They were dominated by the nobility, but peasants also had a voice. These were quite successful, but led to demands for the people to have a voice in national government as well. This caused trouble, because the Tsar was not willing to grant these demands.	22
806279373	Duma	An elected local government in the cities. (The local government in the countryside had a different name.) Its mandate was to run schools, hospitals, etc. These were quite successful, but led to demands for the people to have a voice in national government as well. This caused trouble, because the Tsar was not willing to grant these demands.	23
806279374	Serf	A peasant who is owned by his/her landlord. Before 1861, there were 22.5 million people in this class in Russia. They were only slightly better off than slaves, and their poverty and lack of freedom was holding the economy back. In 1861, Tsar Alexander II freed these peasants.	24
806279375	Constitutional Monarchy	A form of government in which a king or queen shares power with a democratically elected parliament. Nowadays, most kings and queens have very little power. In the nineteenth century, the king or queen in a constitutional monarchy often had similar powers to those held by the President of the United States today.	25
806279376	Weak Army	This was a problem in Russia at the time of Alexander II. Russia was badly beaten in the Crimean war because the soldiers were poorly led, poorly trained and had inadequate supplies.	26
806279377	Social Divisions	This was a problem in Tsarist Russia. All power was held by a tiny ruling class. Only about 1.5% of the population could be called "Middle Class" and the vast majority of Russians lived in poverty (4% workers and 82% peasants)	27
806279378	Lack of Education	This was a problem in Tsarist Russia. As of 1881 only 11% of Russian adults could read. This made it very difficult to develop a modern economy.	28
806279379	Economic Problems	This was a problem in Tsarist Russia. Although it was the largest country in the world in terms of land area, it had hardly any railways, and it was still an agrarian country, with a tiny industrial sector.	29
806279380	Ethnic Minorities	This was a problem in Tsarist Russia. Over 55% of the population were not ethnic Russians. This made the country difficult to govern.	30
806279382	Marx	A Jewish German scholar who lived from 1818-1893. With Friedrich Engels, he wrote the Communist Manifesto. He predicted that the working class would rise up, overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a new kind of society. The Bolshevik revolution in Russia was an attempt to make his ideas a reality.	31
806279383	Marxism	A political philosophy based on the writings of Karl Marx. The Bolsheviks and Mensheviks in Russia followed this philosophy.	32
806279384	Social Democrats	A Marxist group founded in Russia in 1898. They wanted to push for a proletarian revolution in Russia. In 1903 they split into two groups, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks.	33
806279385	Social Revolutionaries	A political party formed in 1901 with broadly the same policies as the populist movement. They wanted to establish a form of socialism in Russia based on the peasants. Unlike the Social democrats, they did not think it was necessary to base the revolution on the proletariat. They carried out a number of assassinations of unpopular officials. From March to November 1917 they were part of the Petrograd Soviet, but they mostly supported the provisional government and some members joined the provisional government. They won the elections to the Constituent Assembly.	34
806279386	Bolsheviks	A branch of the Russian Social Democratic Party, after it split into two parts in 1903. This branch believed that the party should push for a socialist revolution in Russia as soon as possible. They believed that only dedicated revolutionaries should be allowed to join the party and that, once chosen, the orders of the leaders should be obeyed by all.	35
806279387	Mensheviks	A branch of the Russian Social Democratic Party, after it split into two parts in 1903. This branch believed that a Socialist revolution in Russia was a long way off. Russia needed to industrialize first. They believed that membership in the party should be open to all and that decisions should be made democratically.	36
806279388	Proletariat	A social class made up of non-farm workers. It includes factory workers, miners, and other "blue collar" workers. This was a small but fast growing class in turn of the century Russia. Mark predicted that this class would initiate the communist revolution.	37
806279389	Bourgeoisie	A social class made up of businessmen, professionals and "white collar" workers. According to Karl Marx, this class controls the governments of capitalist countries.	38
806279390	Socialism	A socioeconomic system that Karl Marx predicted would be a phase between Capitalism and Communism. In this phase, only the proletariat would have any say in the government. The government would take over all the means of production. Everyone would work as much as he/she was able and everyone would have an equal standard of living. According to Marx, the government would eventually melt away and society would slip into Communism.	39
806279391	Communism	A political philosophy aimed at bringing about the ideal society Karl Marx theorized would eventually evolve after the proletariat overthrew the bourgeoisie. In this ideal society, there would be no government, everyone would be equal and all property would be shared. Many countries in the twentieth century attempted to achieve this. None has yet succeeded.	40
806279392	Liberalism	A political philosophy that is based on the idea that the rights of the individual (usually including property rights) are paramount, and the government's only role should be to safeguard those rights.	41
806279393	Fascism	A political philosophy that subordinates the rights of the individual to the good of the country. This was the political philosophy underpinning Hitler's Germany.	42
806279394	Means of Production	A term used by Karl Marx to describe the sources of wealth in a society. It refers to factories, farms, mines, etc. According to Karl Marx, whoever owns these controls the government of a society.	43
806279395	censorship	A policy in which books, newspapers, etc have to be approved by the government before they can be published.	44
806279396	Okhrana	The secret police in Tsarist Russia. They spied on the people and arrested, tortured and imprisoned those who criticized the government. The courts had little control over them.	45
806279397	dissidents	People who oppose the government.	46
806279398	autocrat	A ruler who has absolute power over his/her country.	47
806279399	Cossacks	An ethnic group in the Russian empire that formed an elite cavalry army that was used to crush opposition to the Tsar.	48
806279400	Russo-Japanese War	A war between Japan and Russia in 1904-5. The strain of the war caused shortages and hardships in Russia. Also, Russia lost the war, which was very humiliating.	49
806279401	Bloody Sunday	An incident on January 22 1905 when the Tsar's soldiers shot peaceful demonstrators in St. Petersburg. It was the immediate cause of the 1905 Revolution.	50
806279403	Haemophilia	This is a genetic condition that prevents blood clots from forming to seal wounds internal bleeding. Tsar Nicholas II's only son, Alexei, born in 1904, suffered from this condition. This was the reason Rasputin was so close to the Tsarina. It also meant the future of the dynasty was in doubt long before the revolution, as Alexei was not expected to live long.	51
806279405	Rasputin	A starets from Siberia who appeared to be able to control the Tsar's son's haemophilia. As a result, he became very close to the Royal family from 1907 onwards. He had a terrible reputation as a drunkard and a sex maniac, so his perceived influence was very damaging to the royal family's reputation. He was assassinated in 1916.	52
806279407	October Manifesto	A declaration issued by the Tsar on October 30 1905 promising a national Parliament (called a Duma), civil rights, and other liberal reforms. This helped to settle the 1905 revolution. Later, Liberals would accuse the Tsar of going back on these promises.	53

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Modern History: Russia Flashcards

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748065309	Decembrist Revolt	1825 Anti-czar, pro-constitution Official nationality doctrine: orthodoxy (official religion), autocracy of the czar, nationality State-enforced nationalism	1
748065310	Crimean War	1829 Russia suffered from weak planning and poor military Inspired by technology Britain/France/Ottoman versus Russian expansionism	2
748065311	Emancipation of Serfs	1861 Freed from aristocracy and ties to the land but still owned by township Financial instability Need for state in affairs	3
748065312	Russo-Japanese War	1895-1905 Japanese had binding treaty with Britain Imperial/expansionist tensions (Russia's railway)	4
748065313	Russian Revolution	1905 Call for workers' reforms Mensheviks: evolutionary reform Bolsheviks: revolutionary reform Bloody Sunday: massacre of people striking for workers rights First mass attempt at communism October Manifesto	5
748065314	Lenin	1917-24 Eliminating czar "Top down" communism instead of Marxist "bottom up" communism Leader of Bolsheviks who took total control after Russian Revolution Policies caused economic and agricultural collapse Mixed economy	6
748065315	Stalin	1924-53 Collectivization of agriculture Kulaks: starvation, execution of farmers who refused Mass production of poorer-quality goods Weakened his own army due to paranoia about dissent	7
748065316	Gorbachev	1985-91 Glasnost: loosening grip on media Perestroika: conversion to a more market-based economy Gradual conversion to capitalism/democracy may have put an end to Cold War Attempt to revitalize passion for communism Allowed for murder of protestors throughout the Bloc	8

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Physical Education, Unit 3, Are of Study 2 - Physiological Responses to Physical Activity Flashcards

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1501628856	Active Recovery	a recovery that typically involves slow movement and/or light stretching to aid the removal of fatiguing by-products from the muscles	1
1501628857	ADP	(Adenosine Diphosphate) The compound that remains when a phosphate group is removed from ATP, releasing energy	2
1501628858	Aerobic Glycolysis	the breaking down of glycogen with sufficient oxygen (while working aerobically), resulting in the release of 'clean energy' of ATP and carbon dioxide, water and heat	3
1501628859	Adipose Tissue	a kind of body tissue containing stored fat that serves as a source of energy	4
1501628860	Amino Acids	the building blocks of proteins and enzymes, which are crucial for metabolism and for assisting chemical reactions within the body	5
1501628861	Anaerobic Glycolysis	the breaking down of glycogen with insufficient oxygen, resulting in the production of lactic acid, lactate and hydrogen ions, contributing to fatigue	6
1501628862	ATP	(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work	7
1501628863	ATP-PC System	Provides energy for short duration (up to 10 seconds) and high intensity/explosive efforts. Relies on muscle stores of ATP and CP	8
1501628864	Chronic Fatigue	extreme tiredness related to the depression of the body's immune system (can be physiological or psychological)	9
1501628865	EPOC	excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (also known as oxygen debt)	10
1501628866	General Fatigue	fatigue relating to the entire body after a specific exercise session (can be physiological or psychological)	11
1501628867	Glucose	a simple sugar (monosaccharide) produced by the breakdown (metabolism) of carbohydrates	12
1501628868	Glycogen	stored form of carbohydrates, stored in the liver and muscles	13
1501628869	Intensity	the level of exertion being applied to an activity	14
1501628870	Interplay	a situation where all three energy systems contribute to ATP production, with one system being the major ATP producer at any time	15
1501628871	Lactate Inflection Point (LIP)	the exercise intensity beyond which lactate production exceeds removal	16
1501628872	Local Fatigue	fatigue in specific muscles due to exercise	17
1501628873	Metabolic By-Products	produced as a result of the chemical reactions that occur in the production of energy during exercise	18
1501628874	Oxygen Debt	a deficit of oxygen resulting from intense exercise	19
1501628875	Oxygen Deficit	temporary shortage of oxygen in cells, typically at the start of exercise where oxygen demands are greater than the body's ability to supply the necessary levels	20
1501628876	Passive Recovery	a recovery that typically involves complete rest	21
1501628877	Phosphocreatine	a high-energy compound that can be used to re-form ATP. it is used primarily during bursts of activity, such as lifting and jumping	22
1501628878	Pyruvic Acid	broken down form of glucose which produces energy. when oxygen is not present it turns into lactic acid and causes fatigue.	23
1501628879	Steady State	when the body is able to supply oxygen to meet the oxygen demands	24
1501628880	Triglycerides	the form of fats stored in the muscles	25

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All WACE Physical Education terms 3AB Flashcards

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388585831	Preparation	The first stage of the 5-step analysis framework, where the coach or biomechanist identifies the skill, and aspect of the skill, to be analysed.	1
388585832	Observation	The second stage of the 5-step analysis framework. The coach/biomechanist decides how many observations, from how many vantage points, in which sort of situations (lab vs field, training vs gameplay, energised vs fatigued), the athlete will be examined in.	2
388585833	Evaluation	The third stage of the 5-step analysis framework, where the coach/biomechanist compares the ideal performance with the athlete's performance, decides on weaknesses in the athlete's performance, and allocates extra resources to correct the weaknesses.	3
388585834	Intervention	The fourth stage of the 5-step analysis framework. The athlete 's performance should be corrected using the appropriate techniques, and more feedback on the performance should be given.	4
388585835	Re-observation	The fifth stage of the 5-step analysis framework, where the athlete is observed again to see if the corrections have been made to the performance.	5
388585836	Newton's First Law	Every object stays at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.	6
388585837	Newton's Second Law	An object that has an unbalanced force acting on it will accelerate in the direction of the force.	7
388585838	Newton's Third Law	Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.	8
388585839	Linear momentum	Mass × velocity (m.v).	9
388585840	Force	Mass × acceleration (F = m.a)	10
388585841	Impulse	Force × time = the change in momentum, F.t = m(v-u)	11
388585842	Coefficient of restitution	The 'bounciness' of a collision. It ranges between 1 (perfectly elastic, perfect linear momentum conservation) and 0 (totally inelastic, no linear momentum conservation). Nothing has a 1 value, as energy is always lost in a collision (by sound, heat, light, etc). Is effected by materials of objects colliding, velocity of the collision, and the temperature of the objects.	12
388585843	Moment of inertia	A measure of the resistance of an object to changes in the object's rotational motion about the axis. Also known as rotational inertia. I = Σ(mr*2)	13
388585844	Angular momentum	The angular equivalent of linear momentum. L = I (inertia).ω (angular velocity)	14
388585845	First class lever	Load ↓ - fulcrum/axis - force ↓ (hint: see-saws, a diving board, holding up the head).	15
388585846	Second class lever	Force ↑ - load ↓ - fulcrum/axis (hint: wheelbarrows, ).	16
388585847	Third class lever	Load ↓ - Force ↑ - fulcrum/axis (hint: using a cricket bat, biceps in a bicep curl).	17
388585848	Force arm	The distance between the fulcrum/axis and the force.	18
388585849	Resistance arm	The distance between the fulcrum/axis and the load.	19
388585850	Torque	A force that causes rotation, an eccentric force. Increased by the position of the force being further out, and by a larger amount of force.	20
388585851	Magnus effect	The change in the flight path of a projectile - where an object is 'pulled' in a certain direction when spin is put on it, because different pressures exist at opposite sides of the object. A ball will spin in the direction of the high velocity, low pressure side.	21
388585852	Bernoulli Principle	An increase in the speed of fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure. A ball will spin in the direction of the high velocity, low pressure side.	22
388585853	Form drag	Resistance created by a pressure differential between the front and rear sides of a body moving through a fluid, and is mostly influenced by the shape of the front of the body.	23
388585854	Frictional drag	Drag created by the surface area of a body in water.	24
388585855	Wave drag	Resistance created by wave generation - only on the water's surface.	25
388585856	Angular motion	The motion of an object around a central point, rotation. ω = θ / t	26
388585857	General motion	A combination of linear and angular motion.	27
388585858	Linear motion	Movement in a straight line.	28
388585859	Velocity	V = displacement / time (m/s)	29
388585860	Acceleration	Δv / t (m/s*2)	30
388585861	Quantitative analysis	Analysis shown with numbers and figures, ie the speed of a ball, or running speed. Also known as objective analysis.	31
388585862	Qualitative analysis	Analysis of the technique, through video footage, opinion, etc, designed to improve technique. Also known as subjective analysis.	32
388585863	Isometric contraction	A muscle contraction in which no movement occurs because of an equal force in the opposite direction; the length of the muscle remains constant under tension.	33
388585864	Concentric contraction	A dynamic muscle contraction where the muscle applies enough force to overcome the resistance and the muscle shortens as it contracts.	34
388585865	Eccentric contraction	A contraction that involves the muscle lengthening while producing tension.	35
388585866	Vectors	Arrows used to represent direction and magnitude of a force on a body.	36
388585867	Contact forces	Ground reaction force, joint reaction force (between bones), friction, fluid resistance (lift and drag), muscle force and elastic force are all _______ ______.	37
388585868	Free body diagram	A vector diagram showing all the forces acting on a body.	38
388585869	Centre of gravity	The centre of a body, that all the particles are distributed around evenly	39
388585870	Stability	Depends on where the line of gravity is in relation to the base of support. Can be increased by increasing the base of support, lowering the centre of gravity, and increasing the mass of the body. There are three states of equilibrium - stable, unstable, and neutral	40
388585871	Segmental interaction	Movement in sequences, where energy is transferred across the body segments and joints in turn. Moving each segment involved in an action in turn, called sequential movement, starting with the larger and slower limb, and finishing with the faster, more specialised muscles, creates greater amount of momentum and can generate more speed and force.	41
388585872	Performance routine	Actions and/or thoughts that an athlete uses before their performance as a cue.	42
388585873	Inverted U hypothesis	Explains the relationship between arousal states and performance. Arousal at both the high and low end occurs in poor performance.	43
388585874	Arousal	A state of heightened physiological activity.	44
388585875	Stress	An imbalance between demand and response, where not meeting the demand has significant consequences.	45
388585876	Environmental demand	The first stage of the stress process.	46
388585877	Perception of demand	The second stage of the stress process, and is subjective to the individual.	47
388585878	Stress response	The third stage of the stress process. Cognitive (worry and apprehension) or somatic (heart rate, shallow breathing, muscle tension) state anxiety can occur and can tire and narrow the attention of an athlete.	48
388585879	Behavioural consequences	The fourth stage of the stress process. Performance can be improved or impaired, an impaired performance may increase the environmental demand.	49
388585880	Motivation	The direction and intensity of an individual's effort.	50
388585881	Concentration	The ability to focus on relevant cues in the environment.	51
388585882	Confidence	Assurance in one's self, company, or situation.	52
388585883	Imagery	Imagining feelings and senses to replicate those from the competition.	53
388585884	Progressive relaxation	Stress-management strategy in which muscles are alternately tensed & relaxed.	54
388585885	Breathing control	Practising deep breathing to relax the individual.	55
388585886	Thought stopping	A technique used to alter the process of negative or self-critical thought patterns	56
388585887	Self talk	Usually internal self dialogue.	57
388585888	Goal setting	Specific Measurable Action-oriented Realistic Time-bound Self-determined	58
388585889	Group cohesion	The degree to which groups stick together and members feel committed to one another and attracted to the group and its goals.	59
388585890	Task cohesion	Cohesion related to a particular task.	60
388585891	Social cohesion	Cohesion due to a friendship bond.	61
388585892	Sociogram	A diagram that plot the social structure of a group, and identifies leaders and isolated members.	62
388585893	Carron's Model of Group Cohesion	The accepted model of factors effecting group cohesion.	63
388585894	Environmental factors	Contractual responsibilities and team organisation are e____________ f______.	64
388585895	Personal factors	Task motivation, affiliation motivation, satisfaction, and social loafing are p_______ f______.	65
388585896	Leadership factors	The coach/captain, their leadership style, and their athlete/team relationships are l_________ f______.	66
388585897	Team factors	Team stability, team success, and desire for team success, are t___ f______.	67
388585898	Social loafing	The phenomenon that occurs when individual performances decreases as the number of people in a group increases, due to increased lack of coordination or increased lack of motivation.	68
388585899	Matching hypothesis	A theory that cognitive techniques should be used to cope with cognitive anxiety symptoms, and somatic techniques should be used to cope with somatic anxiety symptoms.	69
388585900	Choking	The feeling of being so intensely motivated that it is detrimental to performance. Relaxation techniques can help prevent motivation from reaching this level.	70
388585901	Transfer of learning	The effects of learning one skill on the subsequent performance of another related skill.	71
388585902	Positive transfer	Where a previously learnt skill or context assists with a new skill or context.	72
388585903	Negative transfer	Where a previously learnt skill inhibits the learning or execution of a new skill, or a new context.	73
388585904	Augmented feedback	Feedback from an external source, like a coach, biomechanist, etc, and can be given via visual, verbal, kinaesthetic or written means.	74
388585905	Autocratic leader	A dictator - a leader who makes all the decisions about a team, which can sometimes include their personal decisions.	75
388585906	Chaining	Where a skill is broken down into separate components, and practised separately but in order (forwards or backwards), so they can be put together to create the whole skill.	76
388585907	Checklist	A clear, predetermined criteria relating to a performance or a skill, that can act as expectations for a performance, or can be used as a record of an athlete's performance over time.	77
388585908	Complex skill	A skill that has several components to it, or requires a lot of attention to execute.	78
388585909	Democratic leader	A leader who works with their team to come up with decisions that effect the team.	79
388585910	Descriptive augmented feedback	Augmented feedback that identifies errors in a performance.	80
388585911	Dynamic drill	A drill that contains the components of a skill, performed while moving.	81
388585912	Laissez-faire leader	A leader that lets their team make their own decisions. The term used is French for "let it be".	82
388585913	Notational analysis	A record of a team's performance consisting of numbers and facts, which generally gives a more accurate, less biased view of the performance of each player and the team as a whole.	83
388585914	Feedback sandwich	A way of giving feedback to an individual, where positive feedback is given, followed by the correction, followed by another positive point.	84
388585915	Prescriptive augmented feedback	Feedback given that identifies errors and suggests corrections for them. Visual cues can be given to show corrections, including demonstrations, visual aids, or enhancement of the visual environment	85
388585916	Proactive transfer	Where skills learnt previously effect the new skill being learnt or performed.	86
388585917	Proprioceptive feedback	Internal feedback, including sensory information from joints, muscles, skin, etc, which lets us know where we are in relation to space.	87
388585918	Reflective learning process	The individual learning the skill uses augmented and intrinsic feedback to reflect on their performance to understand and improve it.	88
388585919	Retroactive transfer	Where a new skill influences the performance of a previously learnt skill.	89
388585920	Shaping	Learning a skill by practising the whole skill in a basic form, then building on this basic form with the more complex aspects of the skill. The order the skill components are practised in isn't important, and are usually over-emphasised.	90
388585921	Simple skill	A skill with only a few components, that doesn't require much thought to execute.	91
388585922	Skill-to-skill transfer	The type of transfer where a skill or an experience has an influence on another skill, either in a different context, or because of the differences in the two skills.	92
388585923	Static drill	A drill that contains the components of a skill, performed on the spot.	93
388585924	Theory-to-practice transfer	Transferring a skill taught verbally, or with visual, kinaesthetic or written aids, to practice.	94
388585925	Verbal cue	A phrase or word that cues the individual's attention to a specific part of their performance or the environment.	95
388585926	Zero transfer of learning	Where no transfer of learning occurs between two skills, because they are so dissimilar.	96
388585927	Training-to-competition transfer	Transferring a skill to competition, using drills in training that imitate the context and pressure of competition.	97
388585928	Motion analysis model	Preparation Observation Evaluation Intervention Re-evaluation	98
388585929	Guidance hypothesis	If augmented feedback is provided too often to an individual skill, the individual won't properly develop intrinsic feedback relating to that new skill. An individual must have intrinsic feedback in competition, where a coach can't give feedback on each skill.	99
388585930	Amino acid	The smallest unit of a protein.	100
388585931	Carbohydrate loading	The extra consumption of complex carbohydrates in the days prior to endurance exercise.	101
388585932	Simple sugars	Small sugar molecules found in sweet foods like honey and juice.	102
388585933	Complex carbohydrates	Longer molecule carbohydrates that are derived from plants, like bread, pasta, rice, cereals and potatoes.	103
388585934	Glucose	The simplest molecule of energy.	104
388585935	Glycaemic index	A scale from 0-100 that rates the effect of certain foods on blood glucose levels. Those rated at 70 and above are considered high, from 55 to 69 are considered medium GI and under 55 are considered low GI.	105
388585936	Glycogen	The form that glucose is stored as in the body. It is made of long chains of glucose, which form in the liver/skeletal muscle cell and become stuck in there because of the impermeability of the membrane to the length of the molecule. 600-800g of this can be stored at once, when carbohydrate loading.	106
388585937	Saturated free fatty acids	One of the most basic levels of fat. This unhealthy type is found in dairy products and meats.	107
388585938	Unsaturated free fatty acids	One of the most basic levels of fat. This healthy type are found in avocado, fish, nuts and olive oil.	108
388585939	Triglyceride	Occurs naturally in animal and vegetable tissue. It consists of three individual fatty acids bound together in a single large molecule, and is an important energy source forming much of the fat stored by the body.	109
388585940	Protein	Molecules that make up the body, and are made of chains up to 100+ amino acids long. They're found in eggs, meat and fish. The average individual should have a diet made up of 15% protein, but strength athletes will have a diet of up to 30% protein to repair muscles after hypertrophy work. Proteins are rarely broken down for energy.	110
388585941	Pre-competition meal	The main purpose of this is to fill the fuel stores of the body with carbohydrates and low fat intake. This is so that the body has these stores throughout the duration of the activity. The meal should be consumed three-four hours prior to competition. Some athletes prefer this meal in liquid form for easy digestion.	111
388585942	Pre-competition snack	These are consumed 30-40 minutes prior to competition, and the purpose is to 'top-up' the carbohydrate stores. Food consumed at this time should be low in GI, so that rebound hypoglycaemia doesn't occur.	112
388585943	Pre-competition fluid intake	Around 300-500mL of water should be drunk around four hours before competition, to allow it to absorb and urine to be passed. The colour of the urine should determine whether the athlete has drunk enough. If the urine is too dark, around 200-300mL more water should be drunk.	113
388585944	Radiation	Heat transfer via electromagnetic waves.	114
388585945	Conduction	Heat transfer via direct contact with another object.	115
388585946	Convection	Heat transfer via a constantly moving fluid, like air or water.	116
388585947	Evaporation	Heat transfer from a liquid turning into a gas. This is the only heat loss mechanism that can be used in high temperatures, as other mechanisms make the body gain heat from the environment.	117
388585948	Double heat load	When exercising, sweat is excreted from the body to lose heat. This sweat comes from plasma in the blood. The blood becomes thicker, and can't get to the capillaries in the periphery, and is instead prioritised to the working muscles. This means that less heat can be lost.	118
388585949	Cardiac drift	The reduced plasma volume due to sweating decreases the stroke volume. In order to keep up the cardiac output, the heart rate must increase.	119
388585950	Heat exhaustion	A condition marked by dizziness and nausea and weakness caused by depletion of body fluids and electrolytes.	120
388585951	Heat stroke	A life-threatening condition where the body can no longer regulate heat, and the core temperature can keep rising to fatal temperatures.	121
388585952	Hyperhydrated	Being excessively hydrated. Useful before activities in the heat to keep the level of sweating up for longer and hold off double heat load.	122
388585953	Pre-cooling	Techniques like ice jackets, ingesting ice and cold water immersion are important for cooling the body before exercising in the heat.	123
388585954	Heat acclimatisation	Spending time training in the heat to decrease the time it takes to start sweating, and increase the rate of sweat and plasma volume. This can be done by training in a hotter climate, in a climate chamber, or in a hotter part of the day.	124
388585955	Vasoconstriction	Constriction of blood vessels to reduce blood flow to the periphery	125
388585956	Vasodilation	Widening of the blood vessels that allows for increased blood flow.	126
388585957	Shivering	Rapid contraction of muscles, requiring energy and therefore creating heat, to warm the body.	127
388585958	Piloerection	Causing hair to stand on end by the contractions of little muscles at the base of the hair, thereby trapping an insulation layer of air near the body.	128
388585959	Pilorelaxation	The relaxing of the little muscles under the skin that cause hairs to stand on end, that result in the hair laying down and allowing convection currents to increase heat loss.	129
388585960	Wind-chill	A measure of cooling combining temperature and wind speed.	130
388585961	Hypoxia	A lack of oxygen. Immediate adaptations to hypoxia include hyperventilation, decreased plasma volume (to increase haemoglobin concentration), and increased heart rate. Long term adaptations included an increased red blood cell count, increased haemoglobin, capillarisation, mitochondria and aerobic enzymes.	131
388585962	Live high train low	The statement applied to most altitude training, where athletes rest at altitude and train at sea level, as training at altitude is likely to cause detraining.	132
388585963	Performance enhancers	Techniques or drugs that improve performance.	133
388585964	Taper	The reduction in training load before a competition, to allow extra recovery time. This may mean the intensity of training is increased, but there is always a reduction in the time the athlete trains for. Usually accompanied by carbohydrate loading.	134
388585965	Protein supplement	Usually in the form of powders, they contain extra amino acids to help repair muscle and therefore build muscle bulk. Mostly used by athletes in strength events.	135
388585966	Creatine	Found both as a free molecule and combined with phosphate. Excess amounts mean that the body can produce more energy to use in the production of ATP, and so decrease the recovery time for an athlete after a sprint, or between repeated sprints. Can cause fluid retention, however, which can be a disadvantage. The long term effects haven't been researched.	136
388585967	Caffeine	A drug found in many drinks and foods, most commonly found in coffee, tea, chocolate, energy drinks and soft drinks. It is a stimulant, so can increase reaction time and concentration, and reduce feelings of fatigue or effort. It is also a diuretic. It can cause restlessness, muscle twitching, irritability, and increased heart rate and blood pressure. It increases the availability of free fatty acids for energy, and encourages the burning of body fat.	137
388585968	Buffering agents	The body has natural buffers, however, consuming sodium bicarbonate or sodium citrate is supposed to increase the buffering capacity (the ability to stabilise a pH even when excess acids or bases are added to it) of the muscle, to reduce the acidity caused by hydrogen ions. Too much can cause abdominal cramps and diarrhoea. No research on the effects of regular use have been done.	138
388585969	Anabolic steroids	These supplements act as extra testosterone, and increases muscle mass. This is important after training to repair damage to muscles. A decreased recovery time means an athlete can train for longer. In men, they cause an impaired production of testosterone when not using steroids, infertility, acne, aggression, and decreased testicular volume, and in women, it causes a deepening voice, the growth of facial hair, and menstrual irregularities. It can also increase the risk of heart disease and liver dysfunction in both sexes.	139
388585970	Blood doping	Injecting previously stored red blood cells before an athletic event to have more cells available to deliver oxygen to tissues. 0.5-1L of blood is taken and spun to separate the plasma from the red blood cells. The plasma is put back into the bloodstream, and the blood cells are stored. The red blood cells are put back in before competition, after the body has already produced more cells to make up for the loss. There is a huge increase in oxygen carrying capacity. It can only be tested by testing the amount of haematocrit in the bloodstream. However, it can be dangerous because it increases blood viscosity, and increases the chance of blood clotting, heart attack, and stroke.	140
388585971	Erythropoietin	A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow, which, if injected, has the same effect as blood doping. The use of erythropoietin can only be tested by testing the amount of haematocrit in the bloodstream. It can be dangerous because it increases blood viscosity, and increases the chance of blood clotting, heart attack, and stroke.	141
388585972	General preparatory phase	To establish a base level of fitness and skills. For this reason athletes will do a large amount of moderate intensity physical activities.	142
388585973	Specific preparatory phase	The training becomes more specific to the sport that the athlete is involved in. There is still a large emphasis on the development of basic skills and endurance, but they are done at a higher intensity.	143
388585974	Pre-competition phase	The aim of this phase is to approach peak condition. The training involves highly specific training where there is much emphasis on intensity rather that volume. The coach may try to introduce a competitive sense by adding in scratch matches. More time is allowed for recovery.	144
388585975	Competition phase	All physical and technical capacities have been reached by this time. Therefore the endurance work is maintain fitness rather than overloading. Training sessions should involve the psychological and tactical components of the game.	145
388585976	Transition phase	Also called the off-season, the athletes relax and work to maintain fitness, and sometimes deal with injuries.	146
388585977	Macrocycle	A period of approximately 4-6 weeks with a particular goal to be be achieved by the end of the period.	147
388585978	Microcycle	A period of approximately a week long, with a particular goal in mind to be achieved at the end of the period. The work done in the period should contribute to achieving the macrocycle.	148
388585979	Cardiorespiratory endurance	The ability of the heart and lungs to send fuel and oxygen to the body's tissues during long periods of vigorous activity.	149
388585980	Muscular strength	The maximum force that can be exerted in a single effort.	150
388585981	Muscular endurance	The ability of the muscles to perform physical tasks over a period of time without becoming fatigued.	151
388585982	Flexibility	The range of motion about a joint.	152
388585983	Body composition	The proportion of fat and muscle in the body.	153
388585984	Agility	A skill/performance-related component of fitness - the ability to rapidly change direction	154
388585985	Balance	A skill/performance-related component of fitness - the ability to maintain stability whilst in motion.	155
388585986	Coordination	A skill/performance-related component of fitness - the ability to integrate the senses and movement of body parts to perform tasks efficiently.	156
388585987	Reaction time	A skill/performance-related component of fitness - the time taken from when a stimulus is presented to when the appropriate reaction is taken in response.	157
388585988	Speed	A skill/performance-related component of fitness - the ability to perform a movement quickly.	158
388585989	Power	A skill/performance-related component of fitness - the ability to perform a strong movement quickly.	159
388585990	ATP-CP system	An anaerobic energy system in the body. It supplies energy faster than the other systems. It needs CP to fuel it, and lasts around 8 seconds.	160
388585991	Lactic acid system	An anaerobic energy system in the body. It is the second fastest system in the body. It is fuelled by carbohydrates and can last about 30-60 seconds	161
388585992	Aerobic system	The slowest energy production system in the body. It is fueled by carbohydrates, or fats and proteins, and requires oxygen, it can last from 1.5-3 hours, as long as there is enough glucose, fluids, and oxygen in the body.	162
388585993	Peaking	The phase of training in which performance is optimised to meet the demands of a race, competition or series.	163
388585994	Massage	kneading and rubbing parts of the body to increase circulation for the removal of waste products and to reduce muscle soreness and swelling.	164
388585995	Compression garments	Very tight clothing, designed to enhance the venous muscular pump to reduce muscle soreness. There is limited evidence for this method of recovery.	165
388585996	Cold water immersion	10-20 minutes of soaking in water below 15°C to reduce blood flow and therefore inflammation, muscle spasming and pain.	166
388585997	Warm water immersion	10-20 minutes soaking in water above 37°C to increase blood flow.	167
388585998	Contrast water therapy	Switching between hot and cold water immersion to create a 'pump' to reduce swelling and inflammation.	168
388585999	Stretching	Used as a warm up and after a performance - moving the joints beyong the accustomed range of motion. There is limited evidence to support it as a recovery technique.	169
388586000	Hyperbaric oxygen chamber	A chamber full of extra oxygen, which speeds the repair of muscles and reducing inflammation.	170
388586001	Overtraining	Exercising too intensely or for too long without allowing enough time for rest. Symptoms include increased resting heart rate, impaired physical performance, reduced enthusiasm and desire for training, increased incidence of injuries and illness, altered appetite, disturbed sleep patterns and irritability. Can be prevented with 24-48 hours of rest between intense exercise, and the correct nutrition and a good amount of rest.	171
388586002	Periodisation	Organised division of training into a number of specific blocks, periods or phases that will help the athlete reach their peak performance at a certain time.	172
388586003	Central nervous system	The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.	173
388586004	Peripheral nervous system	The section of the nervous system lying outside the brain and spinal cord.	174
388586005	Axons	Long extensions of the cytoplasm that send an impulse away from the cell body.	175
388586006	Dendrites	Short, finger-like, extensions that take messages to the cell body.	176
388586007	Myelinated fibres	Neurons wrapped with Schwann cells to increase conduction velocity, up to 140m/s from 2m/s, using saltatory conduction (forcing the action potential to 'jump' between Nodes of Ranvier)	177
388586008	Neurilemma	The outside layer of Schwann cells, that repairs damage to the myelin fibre.	178
388586009	Skeletal muscle	Voluntary, striated muscle that moves bones, works in pairs and is attatched to bones by tendons.	179
388586010	Tendons	Tough connective tissue that joins skeletal muscles to bones.	180
388586011	Muscle belly	Fleshy central portion of muscle.	181
388586012	Epimysium	Connective tissue layer surrounding the entire muscle belly.	182
388586013	Fascicle	Bundle of individual muscle fibres.	183
388586014	Perimysium	Connective tissue surrounding a fascicle.	184
388586015	Muscle fibre	A muscle cell. It has several nuclei.	185
388586016	Endomysium	Connective tissue surrounding a muscle fibre.	186
388586017	Sarcolemma	The cell membrane of a muscle cell.	187
388586018	Myofibril	A series of sarcomeres; several are contained within one muscle fibre.	188
388586019	Myofilament	Aligning filaments found in myofibrils that contain the proteins that contract.	189
388586020	Sarcomere	The smallest functional unit of muscle tissue - the segments into which a myofibril is divided.	190
388586021	Actin	The thin filament in the sarcomere.	191
388586022	Myosin	The thick filament in the sarcomere.	192
388586023	Origin	The immoveable end of a muscle.	193
388586024	Insertion	The end that moves when the muscle contracts.	194
388586025	Z-line	The edges of the sarcomere.	195
388586026	H-zone	The space between the actin myofilaments.	196
388586027	I-band	The space between the myosin filaments. These are seen as light striations.	197
388586028	A-band	The length of the myosin filament. These are seen as dark striations.	198
388586029	Sliding filament theory	Theory that actin filaments are pulled toward each other by myosin filaments during muscle contraction.	199
388586030	Crossbridges	Extensions of myosin filaments that attach to actin and pull actin filaments together during muscle contraction.	200
388586031	Force-velocity relationship	Contractions held for longer generate more force as it allows the sarcomere more time to contract. It also works in reverse - if trying to move a lighter object, less force has to be generated, so the action can occur faster.	201
388586032	Force-length relationship	A contraction in the middle of a joints range of motion generates the most force.	202
388586033	Neural chain	A kind of neural circuit in which neurons are attached linearly, end-to-end.	203
388586034	Motor unit	A motor neuron and all the all the skeletal muscle cells it innervates. Large ones are typically found in large muscles, and produce gross movements. Small ones are found in smaller muscles, and produce more precise movements.	204
388586035	All-or-nothing principle	The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain threshold, must begin an impulse, which moves all the way down the axon. Every impulse has the same intensity.	205
388586036	Strength training	This type of training causes improved technique, increased firing rate of motor units, more motor units are recruited, and the firing pattern of the motor units are better coordinated, all before the development of extra muscle bulk!	206
388586037	Type 1 fibre	A type of muscle twitch fibre, this one is the slowest to contract. It better uses the aerobic system, so is better suited for endurance events. They are small and red.	207
388586038	Type 2a fibre	A type of muscle twitch fibre, this one is not the slowest or the fastest to contract. It better uses the anaerobic system, so is better suited for middle-distance events. They are large and white.	208
388586039	Type 2b fibre	A type of muscle twitch fibre, this one is the fastest to contract. It better uses the anaerobic system, so is better suited for sprinting events. They are large and white.	209

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Human Biology and Heredity Quiz 7 - Final Exam Flashcards

Dr. Westholm's Human Biology and Heredity class at The College of St. Scholastica

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1111358458	diploid	- 23 pairs, 46 total	1
1111358459	haploid	- 1 copy of each duplicated chromosome	2
1111358460	autosome	- two of each chromosome	3
1111358461	sex chromosome	- on the 23rd chromosome	4
1111358462	homologous chromosome	- pairs of corresponding chromosomes - contains same genes (not necessarily same sequence)	5
1111358463	how is DNA organized?	- in structures called chromosomes	6
1111358464	what structures are included in the organization of DNA?	- proteins	7
1111358465	interphase	- longest stage - G1, S, and G2 phases	8
1111358466	G1 phase	- cell growth	9
1111358467	S phase	- DNA copied and its chromosomes are duplicated	10
1111358468	G2 phase	- preparation for mitosis	11
1111358469	Mitosis	- chromosomes are sorted into two sets and the cytoplasm divides	12
1111358470	mitosis: prophase	- chromosomes duplicated - spindle fibers connect to centromere	13
1111358471	cytokinesis	- division of cytoplasm of a dividing cell	14
1111358472	how does cytokinesis occur?	- former spindle equator forms a ring of microfilaments attached to the plasma membrane and it contracts	15
1111358473	spermatogenesis	- formation of sperm through meiosis	16
1111358474	oogenesis	- formation of eggs (oogonium) through meiosis	17
1111358475	compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis	- meiosis is the first step in the formation of gametes (sperm and eggs) for sexual reproduction - mitosis is the splitting of diploid germ cells to haploid nuclei (somatic cells)	18
1111358476	crossing over	- occurs in meiosis - homologous chromosomes exchange corresponding segments	19
1111358477	what is the result of crossing over?	- variations in inherited traits	20
1111358478	the consequence of germ cells that performed mitosis instead of meiosis?	...	21
1111358479	gene	- humans have about 21,500 - chemical instructions for building proteins	22
1111358480	allele	- each version of a gene	23
1111358481	gene locus	- specific location on a chromosome to find a gene	24
1111358482	dominent	- presence of a dominant trait will mask recessive - example: widow's peak	25
1111358483	recessive	- need two copies of a recessive allele for expression of trait - hitchhiker's thumb	26
1111358484	homozygous	- identical alleles	27
1111358485	heterozygous	- different alleles	28
1111358486	genotype	- inherited alleles - example: AA, Aa, aa	29
1111358487	phenotype	- observable functional or physical traits - height, eye color, etc.	30
1111358488	intro to genetics #2	look on study guide	31
1111358489	independent assortment	- occurs during meiosis - a given chromosome and its genes move randomly into gametes	32
1111358490	intro to genetics #4	look on study guide	33
1111358491	co-dominence	- heterozygous for a trait, but both alleles are expressed	34
1111358492	how does co-dominence apply to blood typing?	- alleles for blood type determine presence or absence of polysaccharides on surface of red blood cells	35
1111358493	polygenic traits	- combined expression of several genes - examples: height, disease susceptibility, hair color, eye color	36
1111358494	continuous variation	- populations show a range of continuous differences - most evident in traits that can be measured (ex. height)	37
1111358495	three ways the environment can influence gene expression	- medicines, smoking, drinking - stress - diet	38
1111358496	linkage	- is the distance between them is short - less likely to be separated during crossing over - tend to stay together/inherited together	39
1111358497	what orientation of genes are most likely to be linked?	- close together	40
1111358498	compare the X and Y chromosomes with respect to number of genes	- X = 2000+ - Y = few	41
1111358499	what does the SRY gene do on the y-chromosome?	- stimulate production of testosterone	42
1111358500	why does the father determine the sex of a baby?	- contains the Y chromosome (boy) and another X chromosome (girl)	43
1111358501	x-inactivation	- most of one of a female's X chromosome turned off soon after first division of zygote - condenses into a Barr body - mosaic expression of maternal and paternal chromosomes	44
1111358502	what is the consequence of x-inactivation	- incontinentia pigmenti - darker patches of skin color are visible in tissue where the mutated X chromosomes active	45
1111358503	x-linked genetic disorders nearly exclusively affect males?	- males have 1 X chromosome - don't have another allele to make up for faulty copy	46
1111358504	chromosomes #6	look on study guide	47
1111358505	two examples of x-linked disorders and their basic symptoms	- hemophilia A - most common form - mutation in the gene for the clotting protein factor VIII - caused by inbreeding - duchene muscular dystrophy - mutated form of muscle supposed protein - muscles degenerate, lose ability to walk - usually die by age 30 from cardiac or reparatory failure	48
1111358506	chromosomes #8	look on study guide	49
1111358507	cystic fibrosis	- fatal usually before age 30 - thickened mucus: clogs airways - infections - treatment: physiotherapy and antibiotics	50
1111358508	how is cystic fibrosis inherited?	- faulty CFTR gene - inherited from both parents	51
1111358509	huntington disease	- progressive degeneration of nervous system - symptoms appear after age 30 - fatal - mutation on chromosome 4	52
1111358510	how is huntington disease inherited	- need one copy of faulty gene to have disorder (autosomal genetic disorder)	53
1111358511	what is sickle cell anemia?	- homozygous recessive - one amino acid substitution in hemoglobin - val instead of glu - pleiotropic effects - relatively common for a recessive genetic disorder - heterozygous - confers resistance to malaria	54
1111358512	why had the recessive allele persisted in the human population?	...	55
1111358513	chromosomes # 12	look on study guide	56
1111358514	non-disjuction	- one or more pairs of chromosomes fail to separate during cell division - increases with a woman's age - if such a gamete is fertilized: trisomy or monosomy	57
1111358515	one example of a genetic disorder resulting from non-disjunction	- down's syndrome - defect of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21) - mental retardation, abnormal skeletal development, motor functions delayed, and weaker muscles	58
1114112345	mitosis: metaphase	- chromosomes align at the equator	59
1114112346	mitosis: anaphase	- sister chromatids separate and move to poles	60
1114112347	mitosis: telephase	- two diploid nuclei form	61

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HB2 WJEC Human Biology - Human Defence mechanisms Flashcards

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1443049055	Lines of defence	Physical barriers Immune response	1
1443049056	Physical barriers	skin, keeping micro-organisms from entering body	2
1443049057	Immune response	once the pathogen is identified, a specific response from WBC takes place Phagocytosis	3
1443049058	Non specific mechanisms	Natural barriers, skin, skin flora, blood clotting - seals wounds Ciliated mucus membranes, lysozyme enzyme and stomach acid Resistance to disease depends on the general health and diet Vitamin C deficiency leads to weakened connective tissue, causing open wounds Skin flora - population of harmless micro-organisms that live on the skin surface. Protect us by competing with pathogenic bacteria for nutrients Localised defence - inflammation and phagocytosis	4
1443049059	inflammation	Caused by damage to body's tissues Pain, redness, heat and swelling Functions: destroys cause of infection, confines infection to a small area limiting the effects on the body, replaces or pairs damaged tissue	5
1443049060	3 stages of inflammation	Increase in diameter and permeability of blood vessels in damaged area → increases blood flow therefore allowing defence cells to reach the area. → blood clots form in damaged blood vessels WBC (phagocytes) arrive, start destroying microbes by phagocytosis → an abscess will start to form after a few days, which is pus - contains dead phagocytes, damaged tissues, body fluids New cells replace the dead tissues	6
1443049061	phagocytosis	Phagocyte attaches itself onto the bacterium's surface Engulfs pathogen into a vesicle Lyzosome moves towards this vesicle. Lyzosomes contain Lyzozymes, the digestive enzyme The two vesicles fuse, causing enzyme to digest the pathogen. Fragments of the antigen are presented on the surface of the macrophage Soluble products are absorbed into the phagocyte. Leftover fragments are released by exocytosis	7
1443049062	Specific mechanisms	For individual forms of infection	8
1443049063	Antigens	Substance that triggers the formation of antibodies, or reacts with antibodies already present Complex molecules usually made out of proteins or polymers Self antigens - occur on surface of cells of the body Non self-antigens - foreign organisms Non-self antigens triggers production of antibodies	9
1443049064	Antibodies	Glycoproteins - blood proteins called immunoglobulins Y shaped molecule, made out of 2 large 'heavy' polypeptide chains and 2 light polypeptide chains There are 2 variable antigen-binding sites Different for each antibody Recognise and attach to a specific antigen Produced by lymphocytes in the presence of the specific antigen	10
1443049065	Cell-mediated immune response	Involves T lymphocytes Recognise and attack a particular type of antigen Lymphocytes mature in thymus gland. Become "immunologically competent", capable of synthesizing new receptor molecules, incorporated into plasma membrane. Circulate in the blood and body fluids. Macrophages engulf pathogens having non-self antigens. The macrophages then present these antigens on their membrane. Binding sites on the surface of a T lymphocyte recognize and fit with the antigen T lymphocytes triggered and rapidly multiply. Divide by mitosis. Produce clones of T lymphocyte that recognise the antigen as being non-self Each cell in the clone can attach to the complementary antigen and destroy it Clone can differentiate	11
1443049066	Humoral immune response	Involves B lymphocytes Attack and destroy antigen on non-self-micro-organism , by producing antibodies - Antigens in the cell membrane of a macrophage are recognised by B-cells - B-cells are triggered when specific binding sites on their surface attach to the antigens - Activated cells divide rapidly by mitosis, forming a clone of the plasma cells in the lymph node. These cells produce antibodies or memory cells - Antibodies circulate and bind with the specific antigen and destroy it. Immediate defence against infection. (primary immune response) - Only live for a few days, but can produce and secrete vast quantities of antibodies. Memory cells can live for a very long time. If that antigen is encountered again, the memory cells will recognise it and stimulate the production of antibodies. (secondary immune response)	12
1443049067	Antibodies and antigens	Antibody becomes attached to antigen at the binding site Causes antibody to change from T shape to Y shape Exposes part of the antibody to substances in the blood plasma - Antibodies and antigens form immune complexes on the bacterial surface, making the bacteria clump together. - Phagocytes can engulf the bacteria, by phagocytosis	13
1443049068	Natural Passive Immunity	May be due to transfer of antibodies from mother to foetus across the placenta Or from mother to new-born offspring via colostrum (the first secretion of the mammary gland) Temporary, no memory cells produced	14
1443049069	Natural Active Immunity	Exposure to infection Body makes its own antibodies and specific memory cells Long lasting	15
1443049071	Artificial Passive Immunity	Injection of ready-made antibodies No memory cells - temporary Preventative measure for diseases that are difficult to immunise against e.g. tetanus and diphtheria Treatment for diseases whereby an infection has already occurred and is too dangerous to leave to the body's immune system e.g. rabies Short lived because injected antibodies are non-self and are destroyed	16
1443049073	Artificial Active Immunity	Vaccination Lymphocytes recognise non-self Injecting a dead or inactive form of the pathogen Causes stimulation of antibodies and memory cells Acquires immunity	17
1443049075	Primary latent period	Antigen is detected by B lymphocytes Activated cells divide through mitosis Produce antibodies and some memory cells	18
1443049077	Primary response period	Antibody concentration increases and then decreases	19
1443049079	Secondary response	If antigen is reintroduced or if it persists Lower level of antigen with a shorter latent phase Higher concentration of antibodies produced Triggers the same events as the primary response but much quicker Memory cells are activated to produce plasma B cells producing the specific antibody which remain for a longer time	20
1443049080	Effectiveness of vaccination programmes	The greater the proportion of the population vaccinated, the greater the effectiveness of the programme International co-operation is required to reduce global problems Rate of mutation will affect the effectiveness too: A low mutation rate means that the vaccine can be effective over longer periods of time, whereas the influenza virus cannot be vaccinated against due to the high mutation rates and lack of resistance in the population and lack of long-term vaccination A few cases of vaccination in "childhood" diseases have caused a few side effects. This has reduced the number of people being vaccinated, increasing the incidence of disease, and therefore increasing the risk of contact. Public information and education are required to allow people to make rational and informed choices. Increased travel increases risk of infections spreading globally Influenza is spread through droplet infection, meaning it is difficult to control We must reduce the reservoirs of birds or animals who are not vaccinated. For example, only teenage girls were meat to get the rubella vaccination, however the boys would be a reservoir for the disease, therefore all are vaccinated against rubella	21
1443049081	Effects of HIV infection	AIDS is caused by HIV. HIV is a retrovirus, meaning that it uses its RNA to produce single strand of DNA (copy DNA) inside the host cell Transmitted through blood or semen, through cuts in the skin or an infected hypodermic needle. May have no symptoms or may have a short lived illness when they are first infected. Virus attacks the T-helper cells in the body's immune system Virus can remain latent for many years Starts to replicate and destroys host cell Reduces number of T cells HIV reduces body's ability to fight off disease Immune system weakens, infections start to take hold Symptoms are vast and not always due to directly the HIV Cancer, weight loss, weakness, fever, diarrhea, deteriorating brain function, pneumonia (rare form) HIV antibodies present in blood T helper cell is low Clinical AIDS	22

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Human Biology: The Muscular System Flashcards

Review of Chapter 30 of "Campbell Biology: Concepts and Connections" for Dr. Wojita's Human Biology class at OSU Marion

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859431840	The skeletal muscle membranes	Acetyl- choline	1
859431841	Invaginations of the cell membrane, on either side of the sarcomeres	Transverse (T) tubules	2
859431842	Place in the muscle fiber where Ca++ ions are stored	Sarcoplasmic reticulum	3
859431843	The number of action potentials per second that are needed to be sent to a muscle to generate a smoother, stronger, full contraction as seen in fused muscular tetanus	Around 100 per second Here all evidence of relaxation in the twitches summated ends, and a smooth full contraction is produced	4
859431844	The contractions used in everyday muscular movements	Positive contractions Negative Contractions Isometric Contractions	5
859431845	The contraction that shortens muscles and generates force	Positive Contraction	6
859431846	The type of respiration that is a larger producer of ATP	aerobic	7
859431847	The contraction that lengthens muscles and generates force	Negative Contraction	8
859431848	The contraction that keeps the muscle the same length and generates force	Isometric Contraction	9
859431849	A muscle twitch is a result of this	One action potential per second	10
859431850	The functional unit of a muscle	Sarcomere	11
859431851	If one desires more force in a muscle contraction, then he or she will...	Recruit more motor units Bring all the motor units recruited to tetanus	12
859431852	The type of muscle fiber that would be found in large amounts in an endurance muscle like the soleus in the calf.	Red, slow twitch Type I	13
859431853	The type of muscle fiber that would be found in large amounts in a quick muscles like the hands or eyeball muscles and in, powerful quick muscles like the gastrocnemius in the calf.	White, fast twitch, Type 2b	14
859431854	These fibers are slow in contracting, have high amount of capillaries, store large amounts of myoglobin, specialize in aerobic metabolism, and have large and many mitochondria.	Red, slow twitch Type I	15
859431855	These fibers have large diameter thick and thin myofilaments, ample enzymes for glycolysis, fast ATPase enzymes, store glycogen, specialize in anaerobic metabolism, and have large and are white-pink in color.	White, fast twitch, Type 2b	16
859431856	In general, any type of cross bridge activity in the sarcomere can generate force, no matter is shorteing, lengthening or staying the same length.	True	17
859431857	Thick myofilament cross bridges of the sarcomere are found on this protein.	Myosin	18
859431858	During muscle contraction, thick myofilament cross bridges bind to this protein on the thin myofilament.	Actin	19
859431859	When a muscle is relaxing, would Calcium, Ca++ levels, in the sarcomere be...	Low	20
859431860	When a muscle is contracting, would Calcium Ca++ levels, in the sarcomere be...	High	21
859431861	A motor unit made out of this.	One motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it stimulates	22
859431862	Under 10 muscle fibers per unit	provides great dexterity and coordination	23
859431863	Hundreds of muscle fibers per motor unit	provides great force	24
859431864	This is another name for a muscle cell	Fiber	25
859431865	Skeletal muscle fibers have...	More than one nucleus	26
859431866	The theory of muscle contraction	Sliding filament theory	27

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Human Biology Key Definitions Flashcards

A2 OCR human biology key definitions

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409130906	Gene	A length of DNA which codes for the production of a particular polypeptide	1
409130907	Allele	One of the different forms of a gene which occupy the same locus on homologous chromosomes	2
409130908	Locus	The position on a chromosome at which a particular gene is found	3
409130909	Phenotype	A person's observable characteristics, resulting from an interaction between their genotype and environment	4
409130910	Genotype	The genetic make-up of an organism. It describes all the alleles that the nucleus of a human cell contains	5
409130911	Homozygous	A genotype in which the two alleles of a gene are identical e.g. AA or aa	6
409130912	Heterozygous	A genotype in which the two alleles of a gene are different e.g. Aa	7
409130913	Dominant	A dominant allele always shows its effect on the phenotype	8
409130914	Recessive	A recessive allele only shows its effect on the phenotype when the dominant allele is absent	9
409130915	Codominant	Both alleles affect the phenotype in a hetero-zygote	10
409130916	Autosomes	All the chromosomes except the sec chromosomes (X and Y)	11
409130917	Gene mutation	An alteration of DNA sequence	12
409130918	Phenylketonuria (PKU)	Genetic disorder in which the essential digestive enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase is missing. Can lead to severe brain damage in young children. Recessive gene mutation on chromosome 12	13
409130919	Cystic fibrosis (CF)	Inherited disorder of exocrine glands resulting in thick mucous secretions in the respiratory tract that do not drain normally. Recessive gene mutation on chromosome 7	14
409130920	Huntington's disease	Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. Symptoms do not appear until the age of 30 or so. An autosomal dominant gene mutation on chromosome 4	15
409130921	Sickle cell anaemia	A severe, chronic blood disease that is hereditary in origin. The abnormal gene produces a crescent shaped red blood cell, which causes the hemoglobin to crystallize within the cell and form painful blood clots and many other medical complications.	16
409130922	ABO blood groups	Genetically determined classes of human blood that are based on the presence or absence of carbohydrates A and B on the surface of red blood cells; phenotypes, also called blood types, are A, B, AB, and O	17
409130923	HbA HbA	Normal haemoglobin genotype	18
409130924	HbA HbS	Half normal haemoglobin, half sickle cell haemoglobin. Codominant genotype	19
409130925	HbS HbS	Sickle cell anaemia genotype	20
409130926	Malaria	A disease caused by mosquitoes implanting parasites in the blood	21
409130927	Heterozygous advantage	Heterozygous alleles have greater selective advantage than either homozygous condition	22
409130928	Sex linkage	An association between genes in sex chromosomes that makes some characteristics appear more frequently in one sex than in the other	23
409130929	Haemophilia	Genetic disease affecting the ability of the blood to clot. Sex-linked recessive disease on the X chromosome	24
409130930	Factor VIII	A coagulation factor whose absence is associated with haemophilia	25
409130931	Erythrocytes	Red blood cells	26
409130932	Pedigree diagram	A family tree chart which shows all known phenotypes for the trait/s in question	27
409130933	Autosomal linkage	A pair of genes that are linked on the same chromosome. The smaller the distance between two loci, increases the chance that alleles will inherit together	28
409130934	Chiasma	A point of overlap of paired chromatids at which fusion and exchange of genetic material occurs during prophase I of meiosis	29
409130935	Crossovers	The exchange of genetic material between two paired chromosomes during meiosis	30
409130936	Crossover frequency	[(Number of recombinant individuals produced) / (Total number of offspring)] x 100	31
409130937	Recombinants	Offspring whose phenotype differs from that of the parents; also called recombinant types	32
409130938	Non-disjunction	Meiosis in which there is a failure of paired homologous chromosomes to separate which results in an abnormal number of chromosomes in the daughter cells	33
409130939	Translocation	The movement of a segment of DNA from one chromosome to another, which results in a change in the position of the segment	34
409130940	Turner's syndrome	XO; Females with only one X sex chromosome	35
409130941	Klinefelter's syndrome	XXY; A chromosomal trisomy in which males have an extra X chromosome; affected individuals typically have reduced fertility	36
409130942	Down's syndrome	Mental retardation associated with an extra copy of chromosome 21	37
409130943	Trisomy	Chromosomal abnormality in which there is one more than the normal number of chromosomes in a cell	38
409130944	Karyotype	A picture of all the chromosomes in a cell arranged in pairs	39
409130945	Restriction enzymes	Enzymes that cut DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides	40
409130946	Blunt ends	Rragment ends of a DNA molecule that are fully base paired, resulting from cleavage by a restriction enzyme	41
409130947	Sticky ends	Single stranded ends of DNA left after cutting with enzymes	42
409130948	Recombinant DNA	Genetically engineered DNA made by recombining fragments of DNA from different organisms	43
409130949	Anneal	The pairing of complementary strands of DNA	44
409130950	DNA ligase	A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication	45
409130951	Intron	Sequence of a eukaryotic gene's DNA that is not translated into a protein	46
409130952	Exon	Sequence of a gene's DNA that transcribes into protein structures	47
409130953	Palindromic	Reading the same backwards and forwards	48
409130954	Gel electrophoresis	Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel	49
409130955	Polymerase chain reaction	A method of producing thousands of copies of DNA segment using the enzyme DNA polymerase	50
409130956	DNA profiling	The analysis of DNA fragments to see who they come from; compares genetic markers from noncoding regions that show variation between individuals	51
409130957	Minisatellites	Highly repetitive gene sequences that don't code for polypeptides, several thousand sequential copies at many points in the genome	52
409130958	Primers	Artificially made pieces of single-stranded DNA that are 20 to 30 nucleotides long that must be present for DNA polymerase to initiate replication	53
409160106	Vector	Used to transport DNA into the host cell	54
409160107	Plasmid	A small cellular inclusion consisting of a ring of DNA that is not in a chromosome but is capable of autonomous replication	55
409160108	Recombinant DNA	Genetically engineered DNA made by recombining fragments of DNA from different organisms	56
409160109	Gene therapy	The insertion of working copies of a gene into the cells of a person with a genetic disorder in an attempt to correct the disorder	57
409160110	Augmentation	Adding a gene (copy of a functional allele)	58
409160111	Germ cells (gene therapy)	Gene therapy using cells which give rise to eggs or sperm	59
409160112	Somatic cells (gene therapy)	Gene therapy using non-reproductive cells	60
409160113	Human Genome Project	An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome	61
409160114	Pedigree analysis	The formal study of the pattern of a trait in a pedigree to determine such properties as its mode of inheritance, age of onset, and variability in phenotype	62
409160115	Genetic counselling	A communication process designed to help couples assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in view of risks and family goals	63
409160116	Transplant surgery	Replaces a malfunctioning body part, tissue, or organ	64
409160117	HLA antigens	Antigens the body recognizes as self or non-self; present on all body cells except the red blood cells; human leucocyte antigen	65
409160118	Tissue rejection	Rejection of transplanted tissue results because the recipient's immune system recognizes that the transplanted tissue is not "self"	66
409160119	Haplotype	Each set of HLA antigens; every person inherits one from each parent	67
409160120	Xenotransplantation	A surgical procedure in which tissue or whole organs are transfered from one species to another species	68
409160121	Cadavers	A dead body	69
409160122	Stem cells	Unspecialised cells that retain the ability to become a wide variety of specialized cells	70
409160123	Pluripotent	Stem cells with the potential to differentiate into most any type of cell	71
409160124	Blastocysts	An early embryonic state which embryonic stem cells are derived from	72
409160125	Compatibility	The ability to accept transplanted tissue	73
409160126	Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)	The area of chromosome 6 where the loci of the genes for HLA antigens are situated	74
409198003	Nervous system	The sensory and control apparatus consisting of a network of nerve cells	75
409198004	Central nervous system	The portion of the vertebrate nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord	76
409198005	Peripheral nervous system	The section of the nervous system lying outside the brain and spinal cord	77
409198006	Sclera	A tough, white outer layer; protects structures within the eye and maintains the shape of the eye	78
409198007	Choroid layer	Richly supplied with blood vessels; inner part made up of cells containing the dark pigment, melanin; absorbs light and prevents it from being reflected inside the eye	79
409198008	Retina	Innermost layer of the eye; contains the receptor cells (rods and cones); receptor cells receive the light stimulus and convert light into nerve impulses	80
409198009	Fovea	Part of the retina where cones are concentrated; area of maximum visual acuity	81
409198010	Conjunctiva	Thin layer at the front of the eye; protects the surface of the eye; kept moist by fluid secreted by tear ducts	82
409198011	Cornea	Continuous with the sclera; refracts light rays entering the eye so focusing light rays onto the retina	83
409198012	Iris	Contains circular and radial muscles and pigmented cells; helps to control the amount of light passing into the eye	84
409198013	Pupil	Circular space (hole) in the centre of iris; size altered by the contraction and relaxation of the iris muscles	85
409198014	Ciliary body	Contains ciliary muscles; helps to control the shape (diameter) of the lens	86
409231438	Lens	Made up of stacks of long, narrow, transparent cells; about 4 mm thick and biconvex; focuses rays of light onto the retina	87
409231439	Suspensory ligaments	Ligaments that run between the lens and the ciliary body; holds the lens in place; accommodation	88
409231440	Vitreous humour	A gelatinous fluid found behind the lens; maintains the shape of the eye	89
409231441	Aqueous humour	A watery liquid found in front of the lens; maintains the shape of the front of the eye	90
409247676	Optic nerve	Bundle of nerve fibres; carries action potentials to the brain	91
409247677	Rods	Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond	92
409247678	Cones	Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect fine detail and give rise to colour sensations	93
409247679	Bipolar cells	Specialised cells which connect rods and cones to the ganglion cells of the optic nerve	94
409247680	Ganglion cells	The specialised cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain	95
409247681	Blind spot	The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, where no receptor cells are located	96
409247682	Action potential	A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane	97
409247683	Resting potential	The potential difference between the two sides of the membrane of a nerve cell when the cell is not conducting an impulse; -40mV in rod cells	98
409247684	Rhodopsin	A visual pigment consisting of retinal and opsin. When it absorbs light, the retinal changes shape and dissociates from the opsin, after which it is converted back to its original form	99
409247685	Bleaching	The change in the shape of the retinal molecule and the consequent change in shape of the opsin protein	100
409247686	Visual acuity	Sharpness of vision	101
409247687	Snellen chart	Display consisting of a printed card with letters and numbers in lines of decreasing size to test eye sight	102
409247688	Ishihara test	Test for colour blindness	103
409247689	Brain	The part of the central nervous system that is located in the skull and controls most functions in the body	104
409247690	Cranium	The part of the skull that encloses the brain	105
409247691	Meninges	A membrane (one of 3) that envelops the brain and spinal cord	106
409247692	Blood-brain barrier	Blood vessels (capillaries) that selectively let certain substances enter the brain tissue and keep other substances out	107
409247693	Cerebral cortex	The layer of unmyelinated neurons (the gray matter) forming the cortex of the cerebrum	108
409247694	Cerebrum	Anterior portion of the brain consisting of two hemispheres	109
409247695	Cerebellum	The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brain stem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance	110
409247696	Sympathetic branch	The division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the organism for physical exertion	111
409247697	Parasympathetic branch	The division of the autonomic nervous system that restores the body's normal resting state and conserves energy	112
409247698	Frontal lobe	The lobe at the front of the brain associated with movement, speech, and impulsive behavior	113
409247699	Parietal lobe	Portion of the brain behind the frontal lobe; responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch	114
409247700	Occipital lobe	Portion of the brain posterior to the parietal and temporal lobes; responsible for vision	115
409247701	Temporal lobe	The portion of the cerebral cortex that is just above the ears and that is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory	116
409247702	Cerebellum	Involved in coordinating your muscles to allow precise movements and control of balance and posture	117
409247703	Medulla oblongata	Lies beneath the cerebellum; forms the link between the brain and the spinal cord	118
409247704	Hypothalmus	Brain structure that acts as a control center for recognition and analysis of hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger and body temperature	119
409247705	Motor neurone	Type of neurone that caries messages from the brain and spinal cord to an effector	120
409247706	Sensory neurone	Neurones conveying signals from a receptor to the CNS	121
409247707	Relay neurone	A neurone in the CNS which passes impulses from one neurone to another	122
409247708	Axon	Long nerve fibre that conducts away from the cell body of the neuron	123
409247709	Dendron	Carries action potentials towards the cell body	124
409247710	Dendrites	Very short processes that carry nerve impulses towards the cell body	125
409247711	Schwann cells	Part of the neuron that produces the myelin sheath; functions in repair and regeneration of damaged nerves; wrap around the axon; aid the myelin in insulation	126
409247712	Myelin sheath	A layer of myelin encasing (and insulating) the axons of medullated nerve fibers	127
409247713	Nodes of Ranvier	Small gaps in the myelin sheath of medullated axons	128
409247714	Reflex arc	A relatively direct connection between a sensory neurone and a motor neurone that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement	129
409247715	Receptor	Specialised cell that monitors conditions in the body or external environment; has a characteristic range of sensitivity	130
409247716	Effector	A nerve fibre that terminates on a muscle or gland and stimulates contraction or secretion	131
409488184	Polarised	Membrane with a potential difference across it	132
409488185	Resting potential	The potential difference between the two sides of the membrane of a nerve cell when the cell is not conducting an impulse; -70 mV in neurones	133
409488186	Sodium/potassium pump	A carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell	134
409488187	Potential difference	A measure of the charge difference across the cell membrane	135
409488188	Depolarised	When the axon undergoes an action potential, usually +40 mV	136
409488189	Hyperpolarised	The condition of a membrane that is more highly polarised than the usual resting state. The resting potential is lower than usual; -90 mV	137
409488190	All or nothing law	The principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur	138
409488191	Refractory period	The time after a neuron fires or a muscle fibre contracts during which a stimulus will not evoke a response	139
409488192	Saltatory conduction	Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane	140
409488193	Synapse	The junction between two neurons (axon-to-dendrite) or between a neuron and a muscle	141
409488194	Synaptic cleft	Synaptic gap or synaptic space; tiny gap between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron (almost never touch); location of the transfer of an impulse from one neuron to the next	142
409488195	Neurotransmitter	A chemical used by a neuron to transmit an impulse across a synapse to another cell	143
409488196	Cholinergic synapse	A junction between neurons that uses acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter	144
409488197	Synaptic bulb	Where neurotransmitters are made; contain mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and synaptic vesicles containing the neurotrasnsmitter	145
409488198	Postsynaptic membrane	Effector cell or neurone that is the receiver of the neurotransmitter (part of the synapse)	146
409488199	Synaptic cleft	Space between two connecting neurons where neurotransmitters are released	147
409488200	Calcium ion channels	Pathway in the plasma membrane through which calcium ions enter and leave	148
409488201	Synaptic vesicles	Tiny sacs in a terminal button that release chemicals into the synapse	149
409488202	Acetylcholinesterase	An enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine	150
409488203	Traumatic brain injury (TBI)	A blow to the head or a penetrating head injury that damages the brain	151
409488204	CT scan	A series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body	152
409488205	MRI scan	Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue	153
409488206	Nerve conduction velocity test	An electrical shock of peripheral nerves to record time of conduction; used to diagnose various peripheral nervous system diseases	154
409488207	Glial cell	One of the cells that provide structural support for neurons	155
409488208	Stroke	Occurs when there is an interruption of blood supply to a region of the brain, depriving nerve cells in the affected area of oxygen and nutrients	156
410790205	Drug	Any chemical that affects the way your body functions, and how you think and feel	157
410790206	Parkinson's disease	A progressive disease that destroys brain cells and is identified by muscular tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis	158
410790207	Dopamine	Neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's disease	159
410790208	Diamorphine (heroin)	Can be used to relieve severe pain; chemical derivative of morphine	160
410790209	Endorphins	Neurotransmitters that give one a feeling of well-being, euphoria or eliminate pain	161
410790210	Opioid	A chemical, such as opium, heroin, and other molecules with related structures that reduce pain and induce feelings of euphoria	162
410790211	Cannabis	Substance that causes feelings of well-being, perceptual distortions, and paranoid thinking	163
410790212	Physical dependence	A physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued	164
410790213	Psychological dependence	The condition that exists when a person must continue to take a drug in order to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving for the drug	165
410836714	Homeostasis	Metabolic equilibrium actively maintained by several complex biological mechanisms that operate via the autonomic nervous system to offset disrupting changes	166
410836715	Vasodilation	Dilation of blood vessels (especially the arteries)	167
410836716	Thyroxine	Hormone produced by the thyroid glands to regulate metabolism by controlling the rate of oxidation in cells; increases metabolic rate	168
410836717	Vasoconstriction	Decrease in the diameter of blood vessels	169
410836718	Hypothermia	Subnormal body temperature; <35C	170
410836719	Hyperthermia	Abnormally high body temperature	171
410836720	Islets of Langerhans	Cell clusters in the pancreas that form the endocrine part of that organ	172
410836721	Pancreas	A large elongated exocrine and endocrine gland located behind the stomach	173
410836722	Endocrine	Any of the glands of the endocrine system that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream	174
410836723	Glucagon	A hormone secreted by alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans; causes increase blood glucose concentration	175
410836724	Insulin	A hormone secreted by beta cells in the islets of Langerhans; causes a decrease in blood glucose concentration	176
410836725	Glycogenesis	The conversion of glucose to glycogen when the glucose in the blood exceeds the demand	177
410836726	Glyconeogenesis	Process of producing glucose from fat and protein	178
410836727	Type 1 diabetes	Insulin dependent; body is unable to produce insulin because the beta cells are destroyed by own immune system	179
410836728	Type 2 diabetes	Insulin independent; the body target cells lose their responsiveness to insulin; can be caused by obesity	180
411251142	Excretion	Removal of waste products of metabolism from the body	181
411251143	Metabolism	Chemical processes occurring within a living cell or organism that are necessary for the maintenance of life	182
411251144	Deamination	The removal of an amino group from an amino acid; breaks off NH2 from amino acids turning it into ammonia	183
411251145	Cortex (kidney)	Outer region of the kidney	184
411251146	Medulla (kidney)	The inner part of the kidney	185
411251147	Pelvis (kidney)	The funnel shaped cavity that receives the urine in the kidney	186
411251148	Nephron	Functional unit of the kidney	187
411251149	Bowman's capsule (renal capsule)	Cup-shaped end of renal tubule containing the glomerulus	188
411251150	Glomerulus	Small network of capillaries encased in the upper end of a nephron; where the filtration of blood takes place	189
411251151	Proximal convoluted tubule	First section of the renal tubule that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, and all organic nutrients	190
411251152	Loop of Henle	Section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine	191
411251153	Distal convoluted tubule	Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium	192
411251154	Collecting duct	The portion of the nephron where water reabsorption is regulated via antidiuretic hormone (ADH); several nephrons empty into each collecting duct, and this is the final region through which urine must pass on its way to the ureter	193
411251155	Ultrafiltration	The process by which fluid and small molecules are filtered out of the blood in the glomerulus	194
411251156	Selective reabsorption	Process in the kidney that puts useful substances (water, glucose, amino acids) back into the blood	195
411251157	Afferent arteriole	The small artery that carries blood toward the capillaries of the glomerulus	196
411251158	Efferent arteriole	The small artery that carries blood away from the capillaries of the glomerulus	197
411251159	Basement membrane	Acts as a molecular filter allowing proteins with a molecular mass less than 69000 through	198
411251160	Podocytes	A cell with branching tentacle-shaped extensions that constitutes the barrier through which blood is filtered in the glomerulus of the kidney	199
411251161	Microvilli	Fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane	200
411251162	Osmoreceptors	Sensory receptors in the hypothalamus that detect changes in the osmotic pressure of the blood and surrounding extracellular fluids	201
411251163	Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)	Hormone released from the hypothalamus; inhibits urine production; causes kidneys to reabsorb water; increases blood pressure	202
411251164	Posterior pituitary gland	ADH passes along the axons of the neurosensory cells which end in the __________ from where ADH is released into the blood plasma	203
411251165	Cyclic AMP (cAMP)	Leads to the insertion of aquaporins into the collecting duct cell membrane, where they open, making the membrane more permeable to water	204
411251166	Aquaporins	Water channel proteins that allow water to pass through them	205

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