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| 4887923405 | Significance of carbon to life | Carbon can form complex, diverse, and large bio-molecules Its chemical structure allows it to form four bonds | 0 | |
| 4887923406 | Molecules that make up life | Carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, oxygen | 1 | |
| 4887923407 | Functional Groups | Directly affect molecular function | 2 | |
| 4887923408 | Hydroxyl | -OH or HO- Example - Ethanol Polar |  | 3 |
| 4887923409 | Methyl | CH3 Example - 5-Methyl Cytosine Nonpolar |  | 4 |
| 4887923410 | Carbonyl | Carbon double bonded with oxygen Example - Ketone (group is in the middle of the carbon skeleton/two "R" groups) - Acetone Aldehyde (group is at the end of a carbon skeleton/one "R" group) - Propanol Polarity depends on the geometry |  | 5 |
| 4887923411 | Carboxyl | -COOH or HOOC- (Carbon single bonded with OH and double bonded with O) Example - Acetic Acid Very polar |  | 6 |
| 4887923412 | Phosphate | P04 (Phosphate single bonded to two negatively charged oxygen, double bonded to one oxygen, and single bonded to an "R" group) Example - Glycerol Phosphate Very polar |  | 7 |
| 4887923413 | Amine (Amino) | -NH2 or -NH3+ (Acts as a base) Example - Glycine Very polar |  | 8 |
| 4887923414 | Sulhydryl | -SH or HS- Example - Cysteine Nonpolar |  | 9 |
| 4887923415 | Polymerization | The process of which two or more monomers synthesize into a polymer | 10 | |
| 4887923416 | Dehydration Synthesis | The process in which two or more monomers form a polymer and lose a water molecule Example - 10 molecules of water are released when 11 monomers are linked together (don't count the initial monomer) |  | 11 |
| 4887923417 | Hydrolysis | The process in which a polymer is decomposed into simpler monomer units with the addition of a water molecule Example - 4 water molecules are required to hydrolyze a 5-monomer unit polymer |  | 12 |
| 4887923418 | Chitin | A polysaccharide that is chemically similar to cellulose, but with the addition of nitrogen molecule(s) Makes the exoskeleton of fungi, insects or crustaceans (can be molted) |  | 13 |
| 4887923419 | Starch | A polysaccharide that consists of Alpha 1,4 links bond the glucose monomers together (can be digested by humans) Found in plants, seeds |  | 14 |
| 4887923420 | Cellulose | A polysaccharide that is chemically similar to starch, but uses Beta 1,4 links to bond glucose monomers together (cannot be digested by animals unless a specialized bacterium is present, as in cows) Found in plants, seeds, fungi |  | 15 |
| 4887923421 | Glycogen | A branched polysaccharide of many glucose monomers, found in the animals (liver and muscle cells). Used for energy storage. "Animal starch" |  | 16 |
| 4887923422 | Glycosidic Linkages | Alpha 1,4 (Oxygen bonded with hydrogens angled downwards) Beta 1,4 (Oxygen bonded with hydrogens angled upwards) |  | 17 |
| 4887923423 | Glucose | The basic monomer unit for all carbohydrates (monosaccharide) Serves as the main source of energy Has an aldehyde (carbonyl) at C1 Hexose (C6H12O6) |  | 18 |
| 4887923424 | Fructose | A monosaccharide similar to that of glucose Abundant in plants Has a ketone (carbonyl) at C2 Hexose (C6H12O6) |  | 19 |
| 4887923425 | Galactose | A monosaccharide similar to that of glucose (orientation of H and OH on C4 are interchanged) |  | 20 |
| 4887923426 | Lactose | Milk sugar, a dissacharide Composed of galactose and glucose |  | 21 |
| 4887923427 | Maltose | Brewing (beer) sugar, rarely found in nature, a dissacharide Composed of two glucose monomers |  | 22 |
| 4887923428 | Sucrose | Table sugar, a dissacharide Composed of glucose and fructose |  | 23 |
| 4887923429 | Starch | Composed of linked L (alpha)-Glucose |  | 24 |
| 4887923430 | Cellulose | Composed of linked D (beta)-Glucose monomers | | 25 |
| 4887923431 | Molecular formula for a polymer with 4 glucose molecules | C24H42O21 Subtract 3 Oxygen and 6 Hydrogen since three H2O molecules are required to bond four glucose monomers together | 26 | |
| 4887923432 | Carbohydrate Loading | Eating large amounts of carbohydrates in preparation for an athletic event A strategy used for endurance athletes to saturate the liver and muscles with glycogen |  | 27 |
| 4887923433 | Ring Structure of Glucose |  | 28 | |
| 4887923434 | Flattened Glucose | H C=O H-C-OH HO-C-H H-C-OH H-C-OH H-C-OH H | 29 | |
| 4887923435 | Dissaccharides | Sucrose - Fructose and Glucose Maltose - Glucose and Glucose Lactose - Glucose and Galactose | 30 | |
| 4887923436 | Why fat is better at storing energy than carbohydrate | Fats contain more energy per unit (2x as much as carbohydrates). Fats are better at storing energy because each glycerol unit can hold three long fatty acid units. Long hydrocarbon chains and their geometry allow dense packing |  | 31 |
| 4887923437 | Saturated Fats | Fatty acids are only comprised of single bonds that allow linear hydrocarbon chains to form Dense packing for high energy concentration Typically solids at room temperature |  | 32 |
| 4887923438 | Unsaturated Fats | Fatty acids are comprised of one or more double bond that produces a "kink" or a bend in the hydrocarbon chain Prevents optimal packing, and creates spaces Typically liquids at room temperature |  | 33 |
| 4887923439 | Steriods | Example - Cholesterol, sex hormones Composed of 4 fused carbon rings Different steroids are due to different functional groups |  | 34 |
| 4887923440 | Phospholipids | Make up the plasma membrane Phosphate head (hydrophilic, polar) Fatty acid tail (hydrophobic, nonpolar) Heads attracted to H2O, which is why there is water in the intracellular and extracellular matrix Self assembles into aggregates |  | 35 |
| 4887923441 | Glycerol | A 3C (3 carbon) alcohol that forms the backbone of a lipid OH Removed when combined with fatty acid |  | 36 |
| 4887923442 | Fatty Acid | Long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at the start (an H from the OH is removed when combined with glycerol) |  | 37 |
| 4887923443 | Ester Links | O-C=O bonds Occurs between the two oxygens |  | 38 |
| 4887923444 | Parts of an amino acid | Central Carbon Amino group to the left and carboxylic group to the right Hydrogen at the top "R" group at the bottom (determines polarity) |  | 39 |
| 4887923445 | Protein functions and examples | Catalysis (enzymes - amylase) Structure (collagen) Storage (ferratin) Transport (protein pumps) Hormones (insulin) Receptor Motor (muscles and motor proteins - myosin) Defense (antibodies) | 40 | |
| 4887923446 | Primary Structure of Proteins | Linear chain of amino acids immediately when a polypeptide is formed |  | 41 |
| 4887923447 | Secondary Structure of Proteins | Forms immediately after the primary structure Shapes due to hydrogen bonds (more bonds, more stability) and the placement of amino acids from the primary structure Alpha Helixes and Beta-Pleated sheets |  | 42 |
| 4887923448 | Tertiary Structure of Proteins | Interactions between two (or more) R-Groups or with the peptide backbone Hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, Van der Waals interactions, covalent disulfide bonds, ionic bonds Many proteins are complete in the tertiary structure |  | 43 |
| 4887923449 | Quaternary Structure of Proteins | Multiple polypeptide (Tertiary Proteins) form a functional protein Collagen, or hemoglobin |  | 44 |
| 4887923450 | Peptide Bond | A covalent bond between an amino functional group and a carboxyl functional group NH2 loses a hydrogen, and -COOH loses OH |  | 45 |
| 4887923451 | Sickle Cell Anemia | In normal hemoglobin, the 6th amino acid is Glutamic Acid (polar) Sickle Cell Anemia replaces Glutamic Acid with Valine (non-polar) Mutated hemoglobin crystallize into sickle (half moon) shaped cells Clogs small vessels and cannot carry oxygen as well |  | 46 |
| 4887923452 | Denaturing a protein | Transfer of the protein from an aqueous solution to a nonpolar solvent Chemical exposure Excessive heat Changes the primary structure of a protein by breaking the intermolecular bonds that holds its shape |  | 47 |
| 4887923453 | How proteins fold | A chaperone protein (Chaperonins) Polypeptide enters one end of the chaperonin The chaperonin closes, and the cylindrical shape of the chaperonin changes (in a hydrophilic enviornment) The chaperonin opens up and a correctly folded protein exits |  | 48 |
| 4887923454 | Isomer | Compounds with the same formula but different molecular makeup (different geometry) |  | 49 |
| 4887923455 | Enantiomer | Isomers that are mirror images of each other, and differ due to a central (asymmetrical) carbon L-isomer (left) D-isomer (right) |  | 50 |
| 4887923456 | Functional Group | Chemical groups that affect molecular function by directly being involved in a chemical reaction | 51 | |
| 4887923457 | Monomer | Small molecules that act as repeating units for larger molecules | 52 | |
| 4887923458 | Polymer | A large molecule made up of many monomer units | 53 | |
| 4887923459 | Hexose | A 6-Carbon sugar (ex. Glucose, fructose) | 54 | |
| 4887923460 | Pentose | A 5-Carbon sugar (ex. Ribose) | 55 | |
| 4887923461 | Nucleotide | The monomer unit of a polynucleotide (nucleic acids) Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine (DNA)/Uracil (RNA) | 56 | |
| 4887923462 | Pyrimidine | 6-Member ring of carbon and nitrogen Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil |  | 57 |
| 4887923463 | Purine | A 6-member ring of carbon and nitrogen fused to a 5-member ring Larger than pyrimidines Adenine and guanine |  | 58 |
| 4887923464 | C:H:O Ratios in macromolecules | Carbohydrates - 1:2:1 Lipids - 1:2:(Barely any) Proteins and Nucleic Acids - No exact ratio | 59 | |
| 4887923465 | Elements associated with macromolecules | Carbohydrates - Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon Lipids - Phosphorus (only in phospholipids, but NOT in fats and steriods), Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Proteins - Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfer Nucleic Acid - Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen | 60 | |
| 4887923466 | Where certain functional groups are found | -OH (Many proteins and lipids) -CH2 (Many proteins and lipids) -COOH (All proteins and many lipids) -NH2 (All proteins) -SH (Many proteins) -PO4 (Many lipids) | 61 | |
| 4887923467 | Element unique to proteins | Sulfer | 62 | |
| 4887923468 | RNA vs DNA | Ribose vs Deoxyribose Uracil vs Thymine Single vs Double stranded |  | 63 |
| 4887923469 | Rules to identify macromolecules | Carbohydrates - 1:2:1 ratio of ONLY Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen Lipids - Made up of a glycerol backbone and fatty acids, 1:2 Carbon to Hydrogen ratio Proteins - Contains NH2 or NH3+, contains a -COOH functional group, and peptide bonds Nucleid Acids - Nucleotides, 5 Carbon Sugar, and a phosphate group | 64 |
