Words that would be helpful to know for the Ap Biology test
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| 555735736 | atom | (physics and chemistry) the smallest component of an element having the chemical properties of the element | |
| 555735737 | proton | positively charged particle of an atom | |
| 555735738 | neutron | an elementary particle with 0 charge and mass about equal to a proton | |
| 555735739 | electron | negatively charged particle; located outside the atomic nucleus | |
| 555735740 | Ground State | The lowest energy state of an atom. opposite of excited state | |
| 555735750 | Excited State | A state in which an atom has more energy than it does at its ground state. In photosynthesis, electron reaches this state after being hit by light | |
| 555735751 | Isotopes | atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons. chlorine: 18 neutrons + 17 protons = chlorine - 35 Chlorine: 20 neutrons + 17 protons = chlorine - 37 | |
| 555735752 | Ionic bonds | when one atom gives one or more electrons to another atom. This gives one atom a positive charge and the other a negative charge, making them attract to each other | |
| 555735768 | Covalent Bonds | Two or more non-metals who share electrons to make full valance shells | |
| 555735769 | Cation | Usually elements (ions) with a positive charge | |
| 555735770 | Anion | non-metal elements (ions) with a negative charge | |
| 555735771 | Non polar | Molecules without an electrical charge, like lipids, that do not dissolve in water. | |
| 555735772 | Polar | when opposite ends of a molecule have opposite charges. ex: water | |
| 555735773 | hydrophobic | something that isn't attracted to water (cannot dissolve in it) | |
| 555735774 | hydrophilic | something that is really attracted to water (can dissolve in it) ex: salt or towels | |
| 555735775 | hydrogen bonding | a weak bond that forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonds with a negatively charged atom and is also attracted to another negatively charged atom. Helps things adhere to each other ex: Water molecules | |
| 555735776 | Universal Solvent | water, the one solvent that can dissolve almost anything | |
| 555735777 | Cohesion | the binding together of similar molecules either in liquids or solids. ex: Water w/ hydrogen bonds | |
| 555735778 | *adhesion | the attraction, or clinging, between different kinds of molecules. ex: water molecules to the inner walls of plants | |
| 555735779 | *transpirationtal pull | when the water in leaves of plants evaporates, then the cohesion between the water molecules cause it to rise upwards from the roots. | |
| 555735780 | *Capillary Action | a.k.a: capillarity. the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of and in opposition to external forces like gravity ex: like how water can rise up on paper when it gets wet. | |
| 555735781 | *Surface tension | the measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a lipid, or the tightness across the surface of water that is caused by the polar molecules pulling on one another | |
| 555735782 | pH | a value that indicated the acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a scale of 0-14, based on the proportion of H+ ions. | |
| 555735783 | Buffers | substances that cause a solution to resist changes in pH ex: H2CO3, can either turn to a base when rise in pH or an acid when drop in pH | |
| 555735784 | Isomers | compounds that have the same # of atoms and elements, but have different structures and different properties. ex: One pentane structure can be straight while the other can be branched. | |
| 555735785 | Structural Isomers | differ in covalent arrangements of the atoms or double bonds. The bigger the carbon skeleton, the more possible isomers can be created | |
| 555735786 | Geometric Isomers | Have the same bonds, but in different positions. if there is a double bond of two elements, and then 2 different atoms attached to the elements, then it is possible cis- on same side trans- different sides | |
| 555735787 | *Enantiomers | molecules that are mirror images of each other. ex: Carbons can attract 4 different molecules, they can be arranged in 2 different ways. one is usually active and the other inactive | |
| 555735788 | Carbohydrates | the organic compound that is the main source of energy for the body, has sugars and starch. Can also be used for structural support in plants or insects | |
| 555735789 | Lipids | the organic compound that is made of 3 fatty acid chains and 1 glycerol. Used as a protective water-proof coating and a reserved energy source | |
| 555735790 | Proteins | an organic compound that can be acquired through eating meat, eggs, beans, etc. Help the body fight diseases, build bone and muscle, and control the rate of reactions (enzymes) | |
| 555735791 | Nucleic Acid | stores and transmits genetic DNA and RNA. Organic compound in the body made up of nucleotides | |
| 555735792 | Monosaccharides | the monomers of carbohydrates; simple sugars Ex: glucose, sugar, fruit, candy | |
| 555735793 | dissacharides | - two simple sugars (monomers) bound together by dehydration reaction. Immediate energy source ex: Sucrose & Lactose | |
| 555735794 | dehydration synthesis | when monomers begin to connect to each other and in order to do that they drop their water molecule. Add monomers to polymers ex: HO - O - O - O -H HO- O - H H2O HO-O-O-O-O-H | |
| 555735795 | hydrolysis | the opposite of dehydration reaction. breaks down polymers to monomers by adding a water molecule to break the bond. ex: HO-O-O-O-O-H H2O HO - O - O - O -H HO- O - H | |
| 555735796 | saturated fatty acid | no double bonds between the carbon atoms in the chain and as many hydrogen atoms can be attached. Room temp. the molecules are tightly together. ex: Butter | |
| 555735797 | unsaturated fatty acid | has 1 or more double bonds between carbon b/c some hydrogen atoms were removed. Room temp: Liquid ex: oil | |
| 555735798 | steroids | lipids that help make cholesterol & testosterone, helps regulate the immune system, and can help increase muscle and bone mass. Has a 4 ring carbon | |
| 555735799 | Peptide bond | the covalent bond the forms between 2 amino acid molecules. | |
| 555735800 | Polymer | Many monomers; a long chain of monomers bonded together | |
| 555735801 | monomer | a single, building block molecule. Can make polymers | |
| 555735802 | dipeptide | 2 amino acids bonded together by a peptide bond | |
| 555735803 | *conformation | The specific three dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule, general structure | |
| 555735804 | chaperone proteins | Common in the E.R., proteins that help newly made proteins fold into their supposed shape | |
| 555735805 | quaternary structure | The fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits. | |
| 555735806 | tertiary structure | 3rd level: Specific globular structure; chain folding again to make the 3-D shape of a protein | |
| 555735807 | secondary structure | The second level of protein structure; the regular local patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain. Regional | |
| 555735808 | primary structure | The first level of protein structure; the specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain. | |
| 555735809 | DNA | a long double helix molecule made up of nucleotides that carries the genetic information for the body. has instructions on how to make proteins that make up traits and can make copies of itself so can be passed down | |
| 555735810 | RNA | a single stranded molecule. mRNA: carries a copy of instructions on how to make a kind of protein tRNA: helps transfer amino acids to the ribosomes rRNA: part of the ribosomes | |
| 555735811 | Nucleotide | the monomers for nucleic acids that is made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base | |
| 555735812 | Functional Groups | the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions ex: Hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, etc | |
| 555735813 | *photophosphorylation | The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis | |
| 555735814 | *cyclic photophosphorylation | uses Photosystem 1, not PS 2, in order to create ATP. Pathway in which excited electrons from chlorophyll are used to generate ATP without the splitting of water or reduction of NADP | |
| 555735815 | calvin cycle | In photosynthesis, also known as Light Independent reactions. Occurs in the stroma of the Chloroplast, the end result is sugar that the cell can use. | |
| 555735816 | carbon fixation | transfer of CO2 to organic compounds. In the Calvin Cycle, when a carbon molecule is combined to RuBP using the enzyme rubisco creating a 6 carbon molecule. then splits to 2 3-carbon molecules | |
| 555735817 | rubisco | the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between RuBP and CO2 and results in a 6 carbon molecule | |
| 555735818 | RuBP | A 5 carbon sugar that is used in the Calvin Cycle. | |
| 555735819 | *c-3 Plants | plants in which the Calvin cycle uses carbon dioxide directly with Rubisco and makes 3 carbon molecules from them. | |
| 555735820 | *Photorespiration | when CO2 levels inside plant cells are low due to dry hot temp. & there is a lot of excess O2, produces CO2 & no ATP or sugar | |
| 555735821 | peroixsomes | an organelle in cells that digest fatty acids, break down toxic things, and can help digest alcohol. | |
| 555735822 | *c-4 Photosynthesis | modification of C-3 photosynthesis adapted for dry environments. Uses enzyme PEP carboxylase to be more efficient w/ bringing CO2 to the Calvin Cycle instead of O2. Carbon fixation and the Calvin cycle occur in different cells ex: Corn | |
| 555735823 | *Cam plants | Carbon fixation and the Calvin Cycle occur at different times of the day. Pores close during the day to conserve water and can carry out photosyn. w/ light present. Same process as in C-4 photosynthesis ex: Pineapples or cacti | |
| 555735824 | mitosis | After interphase, the process in which the nucleus divides into two, having the same number of chromosomes in each, and the cell splits | |
| 555735825 | meiosis | the process of making gametes. | |
| 555735826 | sister chromatids | Replicated forms of a chromosome joined together by the centromere (mid part) and eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II | |
| 555735827 | ATP | the energy source of the cell to use to do work | |
| 555735828 | Glycolysis | a linear process in which glucose is converted to 2 3-carbon molecules called G3P and then goes through a series of reactions to make 2 pyruvate molecules. Makes 4 ATP and 2 NADH total (not counting those lost) | |
| 555735829 | Alcohol Fermentation | a.k.a: Ethanol. the process in which the molecule pyruvate releases CO2 w/ decarboxlase and then 2 H+ are added w/ dehydrogenase, making ethanol | |
| 555735830 | lactic acid fermentation | the process in which a pyruvate molecule gets 2 H+ molecules added to it w/ the enzyme dehydrogenase, making it lactic acid | |
| 555735831 | electron transport chain | a group of proteins that help transport high energy electrons in the mitochondria and chloroplast and can be used to make ATP | |
| 555735832 | oxidative phosphorylation | the 3rd process in cellular respiration, results in the synthesis of ATP through H+ moving away from its concentration gradient in the inter-membrane space to the matrix | |
| 555735833 | Krebs Cycle | stage of cellular respiration that finishes the breakdown of pyruvic acid molecules to carbon dioxide, releasing energy | |
| 555735834 | Substrate Level Phosphorylation | when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP, making ATP | |
| 555735835 | *Allosteric enzyme | an enzyme involved in the regulation of cell processes. Activators keep the enzyme working by forming it's site. Inhibitors keep the enzyme inactive when it is not in use | |
| 555735836 | *PKF | ... | |
| 555735837 | *Faculative Anaerobes | organisms that can make ATP using either fermentation or cellular respiration ex; our muscles and some bacteria | |
| 555735838 | *Obligate Anaerobes | organisms that cannot use O2 for anything and is poisoned by it. live on fermentation. | |
| 555735839 | Oxaloacetic acid | a 4 carbon molecule that combines w/ a pyruvate molecule (w/o 1 carbon) to make a 6 carbon molecule called citrate in the Krebs Cycle | |
| 555735840 | NADH | the reduced form of NAD+; a common electron-carrying molecule that functions in cellular respiration | |
| 555735841 | Cristae | Infolding of the inner membrane of a mitochondria that houses the election transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP. | |
| 555735842 | Matrix | the space inside the mitochondria where the Krebs Cycle and part of Oxidative Phosphorylation takes place | |
| 555735843 | Chemiosmosis | in chloroplasts and mitochondria, a process in which the movement of protons down their concentration gradient across a membrane is coupled to the synthesis of ATP | |
| 555735844 | reduction | When an empty electron carrier gets 2 electrons and becomes full | |
| 555735845 | oxidation | when an electron carrier loses its electrons and becomes empty. | |
| 555735846 | *cytochromes | An iron-containing protein, a component of electron transport chains in mitochondria and chloroplasts. | |
| 555735847 | ATP Synthase | the protein that captures the energy of H+ as it travels through it in order to make ATP from ADP and a phosphate. | |
| 555735848 | Photosynthesis | the process in which a plant uses water and CO2 in the presence of sunlight to create sugar and Oxygen. 6 CO2 + 6 H2O -----> C6H12O6 + 6 O2 | |
| 555735849 | Light dependent reaction | the 1st series of reactions that require sunlight in order to perform. The end products are reduced electron carriers and ATP which are then used in Light independent reactions. | |
| 555735850 | Light independent reaction | the 2nd serious of reactions that do not require sunlight, but ATP and electrons from electron carriers. The end products are 6 carbon sugar for the plant, ADP + P, and oxidized electron carriers | |
| 555735851 | Chlorophyll | the place where photosynthesis takes place. Has a green pigment shown on leaves. | |
| 555735852 | *Carotenoids | An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, it broadens the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis. Also protects plans from excessive light that can cause damage | |
| 555735853 | *Antenna Pigments | all other pigments in photosystem that capture photon energy and funnel it to reaction center | |
| 555735854 | grana | In the chloroplast, made up of a lot of thykloids | |
| 555735855 | stroma | the space inside the chloroplast where granas and thykloids are located. Light independent reactions (or Calvin Cycle) occurs here | |
| 555735856 | Thylakoids | In the Chloroplast, a flattened membrane space where light dependent reactions takes place. | |
| 555735857 | Photosystem 1 | the second part of light dependent reactions. When light hits here, electron gets excited and moves through ETC until gets accepted by an empty electron carrier. Electron carrier then travels to the stroma. | |
| 555735858 | photosystem 2 | the first part of light dependent reactions. When light hits this chloroplast, then an electron gets excited and moved through electron transport chain to PS1. Also here where H2O is broken up so PS2 can get electron back. | |
| 555735859 | *Reaction center | The chlorophyll a molecule and the primary electron acceptor in a photosystem; they trigger the light reactions of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll donates an electron, excited by light energy, to the primary electron acceptor, which passes an electron to an electron transport chain. | |
| 555735860 | *Noncyclic | not having repeated cycles |
