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| 6142156632 | Griffith's bacterial transformation | -____________(answer is guys name and name of experiment) experiment in 1927 revealed that harmless bacteria have the ability to transform themselves into virulent bacteria by absorbing some genetic factor from another bacterium | 0 | |
| 6142166432 | Avery, Macleod, and McCarty | -isolated and purified Griffith's bacterial transformation factor and proved that it was, in fact, DNA | 1 | |
| 6142173872 | Hershey and Chase | -carried out experiments that lent strong support to the theory that DNA is the genetic material -Tagged bacteriophages with isotopes P32 and S35 -proved that DNA from the phage nucleus, not protein from the phage coat, was infecting bacteria | 2 | |
| 6142186471 | Rosalind Franklin | -while working in Maurice Wilkin's lab, she carried out X-ray crystallography analysis of DNA that showed DNA to be a helix | 3 | |
| 6142197771 | Watson and Crick | -1953-proposed the double-helix structure of DNA -Received the Nobel Prize for their work -hypothesized that DNA might replicate by semiconservative replication | 4 | |
| 6142203810 | Meselson and Stahl | -proved that DNA replicates in a semiconservative fashion, confirming Watson and Crick's hypothesis -Cultured bacteria in a medium containing heavy nitrogen(N15) and then a medium containing light nitrogen(N14); after extracting the DNA, they demonstrated that the replicated DNA consisted of one heavy strand and one light strand | 5 | |
| 6142220935 | semiconservative replication | -DNA replicates in a semiconservative fashion, as proven by Meselson and Stahl |  | 6 |
| 6142227309 | DNA | -__________(abbreviation is the answer)is a polymer, repeating sequences of nucleotides: A, T, C, and G -double helix consists of 2 strands running in opposite directions: 5' to 3' and 3' to 5' | 7 | |
| 6142509960 | RNA | -ribonucleic acid -consists of the sugar ribose; phosphate; a nitrogen base: adenine(A), cytosine(c), guanine(G), or uracil(U) | 8 | |
| 6142518266 | mRNA | -relays the DNA message to the ribosome | 9 | |
| 6142520368 | tRNA | -cloverleaf shape, carries amino acids to mRNA at the ribosome | 10 | |
| 6142524096 | SiRNA | -small interfering RNA -blocks gene transmission -small interfering RNA | 11 | |
| 6142526333 | miRNA | -degrades specific mRNA molecules or blocks them | 12 | |
| 6142531719 | nucleotide | consists of phosphate, a 5 carbon sugar(deoxyribose or ribose), and a nitrogen base(A, T, C, G, or U found in RNA, not DNA) | 13 | |
| 6142540894 | DNA replication | -occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle in semiconservative fashion -begins at multiple ORIGINS OF REPLICATION in eukaryote |  | 14 |
| 6142546108 | RNA primer | -short RNA strand -is the starting point for DNA synthesis=initiation site of replication | 15 | |
| 6142550762 | replication forks | replication proceeds in both directions from a replication bubble, forming 2 _____________ | 16 | |
| 6142555346 | DNA polymerase | forms 2 new strands in the 5' to 3' direction | 17 | |
| 6142560272 | leading strand | forms continuously toward the fork | 18 | |
| 6142562412 | lagging strand | forms AWAY from the replication fork in discontinous segments called Okazaki fragments | 19 | |
| 6142565599 | okazaki fragments | discontinuous segments | 20 | |
| 6142568916 | helicase | untwists double helix at replication fork | 21 | |
| 6142570951 | single-stranded binding proteins | scaffolding that holds two strands of DNA apart as they are copied | 22 | |
| 6142574469 | topoisomerase | lessen tension on tightly wound DNA | 23 | |
| 6142577090 | DNA ligase | joins okazaki fragments together | 24 | |
| 6142579218 | primase | enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make primer | 25 | |
| 6142581089 | DNA polymerase | -adds nucleotides only to 3' end of an existing strand(RNA primer) -proofreads new strands and carries out mismatch repair | 26 | |
| 6142596088 | transcription | the process by which DNA makes RNA -consists of 3 stages: initiation, elongation, termination -initial transcript is the unprocessed version of mRNA | 27 | |
| 6142597787 | transcription unit | stretch of DNA that is transcribed | 28 | |
| 6142597789 | initiation | -first step of RNA transcription -RNA polymerase binds to DNA at the promoter | 29 | |
| 6142600218 | elongation | -second step of RNA transcription -RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 3' end of a growing chain | 30 | |
| 6142603480 | termination | -third and last step of RNA transcription -stops after the termination sequence | 31 | |
| 6142621847 | RNA processing | -occurs before the newly transcribed mRNA(initial transcript) leaves the nucleus -noncoding regions of mRNA are removed by snRNPS and spliceosomes -5' cap of modified guanine nucleotide is added to 5' end of mRNA -Poly-A tail is added to 3' end of mRNA -Both 5' cap and poly-A tail protect the mRNA strand from enzymatic degradation and help the strand attach to the ribosome | 32 | |
| 6142628544 | introns | noncoding regions of mRNA | 33 | |
| 6142643455 | exons | the mRNA strand that leaves the nucleus is much smaller than the inital transcript and contains only____________. | 34 | |
| 6142654333 | translation | -the process by which a codon sequence of mRNA is made into an amino acid sequence -GTP(guanosine triphosphate) supplies energy for this process -64 codons on mRNA are translated into 20 amino acids -consists of 3 stages: initiation, elongation, and termination | 35 | |
| 6142666620 | amino acids, tRNA, mRNA | _______________ from the cytoplasm are carried by _________ to the codons of ___________ at the ribosomes | 36 | |
| 6142668922 | AUG | -the "start reading" codon that begins every mRNA strand is?(Three nitrogenous bases) | 37 | |
| 6142676853 | UAA, UAG, and UGA | "stop" codons that end every mRNA strand are called? | 38 | |
| 6142683116 | wobble | -the relaxation of base-pairing rules for the third nucleotide -EX; UCU, UCC, UCA, and UCG all code for the same amino acid, serine -therefore, a mutation in a gene does not necessarily express itself as a change in amino acid sequence | 39 | |
| 6142693880 | introns | -intervening sequence -do not code for any protein -are removed during RNA processing -found in eukaryotic DNA; not present in bacterial DNA | 40 | |
| 6142701235 | exons | -expressed sequences=genes -code for polypeptide | 41 | |
| 6142707202 | alternative splicing | -different RNA molecules are produced from the same transcript depending on which RNA segments are treated as introns and which as exons -regulatory proteins control the intron-exon choice by binding to regulatory sequences within the primary transcript | 42 | |
| 6143376414 | chromatin structure | -binding histones more loosely or tightly to the nucleosome makes the DNA more or less accessible for transcription | 43 | |
| 6143380515 | methylation of DNa | adding methyl groups(CH4) to DNA silences the genes | 44 | |
| 6143382976 | epigenetic inheritance | reversible changes to the DNA that do not change the actual sequence | 45 | |
| 6143385456 | regulation at transcription level | alternative slicing during RNA processing alters which segments are edited out of the final RNA transcript | 46 | |
| 6143388499 | degradation of mRNA | the length of time that a specific molecule of mRNA remains in the cytoplasm varies and is controlled | 47 | |
| 6143407951 | TATA box | -critical to the process of transcription -area within the PROMOTER that mediates binding of transcription factors and RNA polymerase to DNA -directs RNA polymerase to the initiation site | 48 | |
| 6143416769 | genetics of viruses | -a virus is a parasite that can only live inside another cell; it commandeers the host cell's machinery to transcribe and translate all the proteins necessary to replicate new viruses | 49 | |
| 6143421903 | viruses | __________ are enclosed in a protein called a capsid or viral envelope | 50 | |
| 6143424305 | capsid | a protein coat that cloaks the virus | 51 | |
| 6143427374 | host range | the range of organisms that a virus normally infects | 52 | |
| 6143429677 | bacteriophage | -phage virus -most complex and best studied virus -it attacks bacteria | 53 | |
| 6143432410 | retrovirus | contains RNA(not DNA) -produces new DNA, complementary DNA(c-DNA) using the enzyme reverse transcriptase | 54 | |
| 6143434846 | transduction | -leads to genetic recombination -process by which phage viruses acquire bits of foreign DNA as they infect different bacterial cells and transfer them to other cells as part of the infection process -two types of transduction: generalized and restricted | 55 | |
| 6143442923 | generalized transduction | moves random pieces of DNA from one cell to another | 56 | |
| 6143444402 | restricted transduction | transfers specific pieces of DNA during lysogenic cycle | 57 | |
| 6143447164 | lytic cycle | virus infects and takes over a cell, replicates itself, causes the cell to burst, and releases a new generation of infectious viruses | 58 | |
| 6143456013 | lysogenic cycle | virus infects cell but replicates without destroying the cell; it becomes a PROPHAGE, integrated into a specific site in the host's DNA; it can revert to the lytic cycle when triggered by some environmental factor | 59 | |
| 6143493549 | plasmid | -foreign, small, circular, self-replicating DNA molecule that inhabits bacteria and can express itself through the host bacterium -one bacterium can contain many ___________ | 60 | |
| 6143498170 | F plasmid | -for fertility -contains genes fro production of a pilus, a cytoplasmic bridge connecting two cells that allows DNA to move from one cell to another(a primitive form of sexual reproduction called conjugation) | 61 | |
| 6143503244 | R plasmid | -confers resistance to an antibiotic on a host bacterium; can be transferred from one cell to another by conjugation | 62 | |
| 6143506347 | operon | -an important model for gene regulation -found in prokaryotes only -two types: inducible(Lac) and repressible(tryptophan) | 63 | |
| 6143599692 | lac operon | is "off" unless induced to turn on | 64 | |
| 6143601079 | tryptophan operon | is "on" unless turned off(repressed) | 65 | |
| 6143608464 | promoter | binding site for RNA polymerase | 66 | |
| 6143608465 | operator | binding site for repressor | 67 | |
| 6143609832 | repressor | binds to operator and prevents RNA polymerase from binding to promoter; is allosteric | 68 | |
| 6143612458 | regulator gene | produces repressor | 69 | |
| 6143612459 | inducer | an isomer of lactose, acts as allosteric effector for the repressor, causing the repressor to change its shape | 70 | |
| 6143615377 | prions | -infectious, misfolded proteins that cause severe brain diseases: -scrapie in sheep -mad cow disease in cattle -creutzfeldt-jakob disease in humans -prions spread disease by causing other proteins to misfold | 71 | |
| 6143646185 | transposons | -transposable genetic elements=jumping genes-move around the genome -discovered by Barbara McClintock in corn -two classes of transposons: insertion sequences and complex transposon | 72 | |
| 6143660717 | insertion sequences | -consists of only one gene that codes for transposase, the enzyme responsible for moving the gene; these can cause mutations if they land within a region of DNA that regulates gene expression | 73 | |
| 6143667970 | complex transposon | includes the insertion sequence+ other genes | 74 | |
| 6143670518 | human genome | -consists of about 25,000 genes and 3 billion base pairs -97%=noncoding regions | 75 | |
| 6143672464 | regulatory sequences | controls gene expression | 76 | |
| 6143673735 | introns | intervening sequences; are excised from the initial transcript during RNA processing | 77 | |
| 6143677163 | tandem repeats | short sequences of DNA that repeat over and over Ex: make up telomeres | 78 | |
| 6143679029 | satellite DNA | short sequences of DNA that repeat as many | 79 | |
| 6143684448 | alu sequence | a DNA sequence about 300 base pairs long, 5% of human DNA | 80 | |
| 6143685918 | telomeres | -special nucleotide sequences found at the ends of eukaryotic DNA -consists of a short nucleotide sequence, TTAGGG, repeated 100-1000 times -protects organisms's genes from being eroded through repeated rounds of DNA replication -most body cells do not have_______ and the DNA of older cells is shorter than thatof younger cells | 81 | |
| 6143694083 | telomerase | enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres, is present in normal fetal and cancer cells | 82 | |
| 6143696773 | p-53 gene | -"guardian of the genome" -a transcription factor for several genes -turns on genes involved in DNA repair -If Dna damage is irreparable, p-53 activates suicide genes, which cause cell death-apoptosis | 83 | |
| 6143702310 | genetic engineering | -produces recombinant DNA -combines DNA from two sources into one molecule -used in biotechnology -gene cloning -tools used: restriction enzymes, gel electrophoresis, DNA probes, RFLPS, or cDNA | 84 | |
| 6143718897 | gene therapy | replacing a nonfunctioning gene in a person's cells with a correctly function one | 85 | |
| 6143721543 | uses for genetic engineering | -gene therapy -produces human protein, such as insulin, for therapeutic use -prepare multiple copies of genes for study(cells usually have only one or two copies of a gene -bacteria have been engineered to digest oil in oil spills | 86 | |
| 6143747846 | restriction enzymes | -discovered in late 1960s in bacteria, where they are a defense against infection by viruses -basic tool of biotechnology; called molecular scissors -cut DNA at specific recognition sites | 87 | |
| 6143779944 | recognition fragments | resulting fragments of DNA from recognition sites | 88 | |
| 6143796947 | gel electrophoresis | -technique that separates molecules of DNA in an agarose gel in an electricc field -DNA is digested with restriction enzymes before being run in a gel -the smaller the molecule of DNA, the faster and farther it runs through the gel -DNA(which is negative) runs from the cathode(-) to the anode(+) -DNA in gel is stained and viewed under UV light -In order to do finer separation of similarly sized pieces of DNA, the concentration of the agarose gel can be increased -also used to separate proteins | 89 | |
| 6143823251 | gene cloning method | -isolate gene of interest -insert that gene into a PLASMID -insert the plasmid into a CLONING VECTOR, such as a bacterium; to accomplish this, the bacterium must be made competent -As the bacterium reproduces by fission, the gene is copied or cloned -identify the bacteria that contain the selected genes and harvest them -Human insulin and growth hormone are made for therapeutic use with this technique | 90 | |
| 6143839450 | making a cell component | -technique to enable a cell to uptake a plasmid -carried out by a series of drastic temperature changes(heat shock) in the presence of Ca2+ to disrupt the cell membrane | 91 | |
| 6143844978 | DNA probe | -radioactively labeled single strand of nucleic acid -used to tag a specific sequence in a DNA sample -DNA is denatured or melted(two strands are separated, and the probe binds to the complementary sequence wherever it occurs -used to identify a person who carries an inherited gene mutation, such as sickle cell anemia or huntington's disease | 92 | |
| 6143879987 | complementary DNA | -DNA made from RNA using reverse transcriptase -Carries a complete coding sequence with no introns -can be placed in a cloning vector for genetic engineering. | 93 | |
| 6143883578 | RFLP | -restriction fragment length polymorphisms -differences in noncoding regions of DNA that vary across the population -scattered throughout the genome -are genetic markers tha produce a DNA fingerprint -No two people(except identical twins) have the same RFLP pattern -inherited in simple Mendelian fashion | 94 | |
| 6143889532 | PCR(polymerase chain reaction) | -cell-free, autopmated technique by which a tiny piece of DNA can be rapidly copied(amplified) -Dna in saliva from licking a stamp can be amplified into billions of copies in a few hours -Requires Taq enzymes(Taq polymerase) -limitation of technique: some of the sequence of DNA to be amplified must be known in advance in order to make necessary primers | 95 | |
| 6143897769 | Taq enzymes(Taq polymerase) | -Taq=thermus aquaticus -enzyme that is extracted from extremophile bacteria that live in hot springs -heat stable at 100C -required for PCR technique | 96 |
