AP Notes, Outlines, Study Guides, Vocabulary, Practice Exams and more!

AP Biology Review (All terms) Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images
5811934171Dehydrationconnecting monomers together by the removal of water0
5811934172Hydrolysisdisassembling polymers by the addition of water1
5811934173Disaccharidesglucose + glucose = maltose / glucose + fructose = sucrose / glucose + galactose = lactose2
5811934174PolysaccharidesPlants: starch (energy) and cellulose (structure) Animals: glycogen (energy) and chitin (structure)3
5811934175*Lipidshydrophobic (very non-polar), consist of long hydrocarbon chains4
5811934176Fatsconsist of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, store long term energy, saturated = no double bond in hydrocarbon tails (no kink), unsaturated = double bond (kink)5
5811934177Phospholipidsconsist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic6
5811934178Protein structure and organizationcomposed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular)7
5811934179Protein functions (8)1) enzymes 2) antibodies 3) storage proteins 4) transport proteins 5) hormones 6) receptor proteins 7) motor proteins 8) structural proteins8
5811934180*Nucleic AcidsDNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins9
5811934181Nuclear Envelopedouble membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER10
5811934182Chromatinuncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division11
5811934183Nucleolusnonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these12
5811934184Rough ERcovered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes13
5811934185Smooth ERmetabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons)14
5811934186Golgistores, transports, and secretes cell products15
5811934187Cytoskeletonsupports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products16
5811934188Centrosomes (2 centrioles)only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division17
5811934189Lysosomesonly in animal cells, digestive organelles18
5811934190Flagellaonly in animal cells, cluster of microtubules for motility19
5811934191Extracellular Matrixonly in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell20
5811934192Central Vacuoleonly in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells)21
5811934193Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryoticnucleoid / nucleus; only ribosomes / complex membrane-bound organelles; both have same genetic coding, sugars, and amino acids22
5811934194Phospholipid Bilayertails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied23
5811934195Passive trasportmovement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins)24
5811934196Active transportmovement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)25
5811934197Membrane Potentialvoltage across a membrane due to difference in positive and negative ions, electrons move from high to low concentration (ex. sodium-potassium pumps in neurons)26
5811934198Electrochemical Gradientdiffusion gradient resulting in combination of membrane potential and concentration gradient27
5811934199Hypertonicsolution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed28
5811934200Hypotonicsolution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid29
5811934201Isotonicequal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid30
5811934202When ΔG is negative......the reaction is exergonic (loss of free energy).31
5811934203When ΔG is positive......the reaction is endergonic (gain of free energy).32
5811934204*Enzymesproteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over33
5811934205Substratethe substance that an enzyme acts upon34
5811934206Active Siteregion of enzyme that binds to the substrate35
5811934207Induced fitchange in the shape of an enzyme's active site induced by the substrate, helps to break down the substrate36
5811934208The higher the substrate concentration......the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated.37
5811934209Denaturationthe unraveling of an enzyme due to high temperatures or incompatible pH38
5811934210Cofactorsnonprotein molecules that are required for proper enzyme function, cofactors made of organic molecules are called coenzymes39
5811934211Enzyme inhibition may be irreversible if......the inhibitor attaches by covalent bonds (poisons, toxins)40
5811934212Competitive Inhibitorsresemble a substrate and block enzymes' active sites, can be overcome with higher concentration of substrate41
5811934213Noncompetitive Inhibitorsbind to a portion of the enzyme and change the shape of the active site so that it cannot match with substrates, used for regulating metabolic reactions42
5811934214Feedback Inhibitionthe product of a metabolic pathway switches off the enzyme that created it earlier in the process43
5811934215Oxidationloss of electrons (OIL)44
5811934216Reductiongain of electrons (RIG)45
5811934217Oxidative PhosphorylationATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen46
5811934218Electron AcceptorsCellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2) Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH)47
5811934219GlycolysisInput: glucose, 2 ATP Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH48
5811934220Conversion Reaction before Kreb'sInput: 2 pyruvate Output: 2 acetyl (w/ CoA), 2 NADH, 2 CO249
5811934221Krebs CycleInput: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle)50
5811934222Electron Transport ChainInput: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-) Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O51
5811934223Alcohol FermentationInput: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2)52
5811934224Lactic Acid FermentationInput: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2)53
5811934225Photosynthetic Equation54
5811934226Chloroplast structureExciting chlorophyll: chlorophyll in thylakoids absorb light, which excites electrons to produce potential energy55
5811934227Light ReactionsInput: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+ Output: O2, ATP, NADPH56
5811934228Calvin CycleInput: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose57
5811934229Watson and Crickbuilt the first accurate 3D DNA model58
5811934230Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strandworks toward replication fork / works away from replication fork; both always move in the 5' ➝ 3' direction59
5811934231Steps of DNA Replication1) helicase separates the DNA strands 2) SSB proteins prevent DNA from reanneling 3) primase creates RNA primer 4) DNA polymerase extends DNA strand from the primer 5) DNA polymerase I (RNase H) removes the primers 6) ligase joins the okazaki fragments of the lagging strand60
58119342323 types of RNA1) mRNA messenger 2) tRNA transfer amino acids (20 kinds) 3) rRNA ribosomes61
5811934233Transcription1) Initiation: promoter site (TATA) is recognized 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the 5' ➝ 3' direction 3) Termination: RNA strand separates, RNA polymerase recognizes termination sequence (AAUAAA)62
5811934234RNA processing/splicingsplicesomes remove introns and put together exons, 5' cap and PolyA tail are added63
5811934235Codon vs. Anticodoncodon = nucleotide sequence on mRNA anticodon = nucleotide sequence on tRNA64
5811934236Translation1) Initiation: 5' cap attaches to ribosome which accepts an initiator tRNA at the P site (*AUG will always be 1st codon) 2) Elongation: codon/anticodon recognition and formation of peptide bond between A site amino acid and P site amino acid chain 3) translocation of the ribosome down the mRNA strand 4) Termination: ribosome will recognize stop codon and release the protein65
5811934237DNA mutationsbase-pair substitution; insertion/deletion; frameshift: 1) missense = different protein 2) nonsense = codes for a stop signal prematurely 3) silent = no harmful change66
5811934238Prokaryotic cell divisionbinary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation67
5811934239Somatic cell vs. Gameteany body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg)68
5811934240Interphase(90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis69
5811934241Mitosis1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense70
5811934242Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks)a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase71
5811934243Meiosis I1) Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair up and synapsis occurs, crossing over segments of the chromosomes (chiasma) to create more genetic variation 2) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equator 3) Anaphase: homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. 4) Telophase I...72
5811934244Meiosis IIProphase II - Telophase II act exactly like mitosis except that the resultant number of daughter cells is 4 instead of 2, each with their own unique combination of genetic information73
58119342454 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation1) Mutation 2) Independent Assortment: homologous chromosomes align randomly on one side of the equator or another 3) Crossing Over 4) Random Fertilization: a zygote can be any combination of a sperm and egg (64 trillion different combinations in humans)74
5811934246Testcrossbreed a homozygous recessive individual with an individual with a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype to determine whether or not the individual is homozygous or heterozygous75
5811934247Dyhybrid heterozygous cross ratio9:3:3:176
5811934248Incomplete Dominanceheterozygous offspring have an intermediate phenotype of the parents, 1:2:1 ratio (ex. pink flower from red and white flowers)77
5811934249Codominanceboth alleles manifest themselves separately in an organism's phenotype (ex. roan cattle)78
5811934250Multiple allelesa trait controlled by two or more alleles (ex. blood type, eye color)79
5811934251Blood TypesA: A antigen, B antibody B: B antigen, A antibody AB: A and B antigen, no antibodies (universal recipient) O: no antigens, A and B antibodies (universal donor)80
5811934252Polygenic Inheritancethe additive effect of 2 or more independently assorted genes on phenotype (ex. human skin pigment)81
5811934253Linked genes phenotypic ratiotwo large numbers (wild and mutant) and two much smaller numbers (recombinant phenotypes)82
5811934254Genetic Map (Linkage/Cytological Map)ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome, recombinant frequencies can be used to construct it (smaller the percentage = closer together)83
5811934255X Inactivationin females during embryonic development, one of the two X chromosomes in a cell becomes inactive (Barr body) (ex. calico cats)84
5811934256Nondisjucntionhomologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I or II85
5811934257Aneuploidyone or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number; Trisomic = 3 copies instead of 2, Monosomic = 1 copy instead of 286
5811934258Polyploidywhen there is a whole extra set of chromosomes (ex. oversized fruits); Triploidy = 3 sets, Tetraploidy = 4 sets87
58119342594 alterations to gene structure1) Deletion: removal of chromosomal segment 2) Duplication: repetition of a segment 3) Inversion: reversal of a segment within a chromosome 4) Translocation: movement of a segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous one88
58119342603 stages in cell cummunication1) Reception: cell detects a signal via connection of a ligand to a receptor protein 2) Transduction: the receptor protein converts the signal to a form that can cause a chemical response 3) Response: transduced signal triggers a specific cellular response89
5811934261Types of cell signaling (4)synaptic, paracrine, hormonal90
5811934262Examples of cell signalingG-protein coupled receptor, ligand-gated ion channels, steroid hormones (dissolved across plasma membrane, intracellular receptor)91
5811934263Second Messengers and Phosphorylation cascadesecond messengers and kinases spread throughout a cell that help amplify a cellular signal by a series of phosphorylation reactions (addition of phosphate)92
5811934264Virus structurenonliving, can't rproduce on their own; Capsid: protein coat that encloses the viral genome; Envelope: membrane that surrounds some viral capsids; Phage: protein encapsulated virus that attacks bacteria93
5811934265Lytic Cycle1) virus attaches to host cell 2) phage DNA enters cell and the cell's DNA degrades (*restriction enzymes in bacteria could destroy them) 3) synthesis of viral genomes and proteins 4) assembly of phages within cell 5) release of viruses, destroys cell94
5811934266Lysogenic Cyclethe virus inserts its DNA into a host cell, and its DNA integrates with the DNA of the host, allows it to be replicated without being attacked for long periods of time before entering the lytic cycle95
5811934267RetrovirusRNA virus that transcribes its RNA into DNA to insert into host cells (ex. HIV)96
5811934268Provirusa viral genome that is permanently inserted into a host genome97
5811934269Viral Transductioncontributes to bacterial genetic variation98
5811934270Repressible Operontrp operon - usually on, can be repressed. Repressor protein produced in inactive shape99
5811934271Inducible Operonlac operon - usually off, can be turned on. Repressor protein produced in active shape.100
5811934272cAMP and CAP regulated Operonwhen CAP is inactive, transcription continues at a much less efficient rate even in the presence of lactose101
5811934273Histone Acetylationthe loosening of chromatin structure (euchromatin), promotes transcription102
5811934274Histone Methylationthe condensing of chromatin structure (heterochromatin), prevents transcription103
5811934275Transcription Factors and EnhancersRNA polymerase requires the assistance of transcription factor proteins and enhancers or activators to successfully transcribe RNA104
5811934276Epigenetic Inheritanceinheritance of traits not directly related to nucleotide sequence (ex. fat, sickly, yellow rats were fed a methylated diet, resulted in offspring that were normal-sized, healthy, and brown)105
58119342775 Evidences for Evolution1) Biogeography 2) Fossil Record 3) Comparative Anatomy 4) Comparative Embryology 5) Molecular Biology106
58119342784 conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (not evolving)1) very large population 2) isolation from other populations 3) no mutations 4) no natural selection107
5811934279Microevolution vs. Macroevolutionchange in the gene pool of a population over several generations / large scale changes in a population that leads to the evolution of a new species108
58119342804 causes of Microevolution1) genetic drift 2) gene flow 4) natural selection109
5811934281Genetic Driftrandom change in gene frequency of a small breeding population: 1) Founder Effect = small population of organisms colonizes a new area, 2) Bottleneck Effect = sudden decrease in population size due to disaster110
5811934282Gene Flowloss/addition of alleles from a population due to imigration/emigration111
5811934283Nonrandom Matingselection of mates for specific phenotypes: 1) Assortative Mating = when individuals select partners with simple phenotypic characters, 2) Inbreeding = more recessive traits likely to come together112
58119342843 Modes of Natural Selection1) Stabilizing: favors intermediate, 2) Directional: favors one extreme phenotype, 3) Diversifying: favors both extremes113
5811934285Heterozygote Advantageheterozygotes for a trait are more likely to survive (ex. carriers of sickle cell anemia are immune to malaria)114
5811934286Biological Species Conceptpopulation whose members can create viable, fertile offspring (Problems: doesn't apply to extinct animals or asexually reproducing organisms)115
5811934287Prezygotic Reproductive Barriers1) Habitat Isolation 2) Behavioral Isolation (differing behaviors for attracting mates) 3) Temporal Isolation (mate at different times) 4) Mechanical Isolation 5) Gametic Isolation (unable to fertilize egg)116
5811934288Postzygotic Reproductive Barriers1) Reduced Hybrid Viability (disruption in embryonic stage) 2) Reduced Hybrid Fertility 3) Hybrid Breakdown (F1 is fertile, F2 is sterile or weak)117
5811934289Allopatric Speciationwhen populations become geographically isolated from the rest of the species and has the potential to develop a new species (ex. Adaptive Radiation: many diversely adapted species from common ancestor, Darwin's finches)118
5811934290Sympatric Speciationmembers of a population develop gametic differences that prevent them from reproducing with the parental type (polyploidy, not as common)119
5811934291Punctuated Equilibrium vs. Gradualismevolution occurs in short spurts of rapid change / each new species will evolve gradually over long spans of time120
5811934292Convergent Evolutiondifferent organisms that occupy similar environments come to resemble one another (ex. dolphins and sharks)121
5811934293EndosymbiosisOrigin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Evidence: They have their own DNA and ribosomes, double membrane structure, grow and reproduce on their own within the cell122
5811934294Phylogenyevolutionary history of a species or group of related species123
5811934295Taxonomic groups from broad to narrow (8)Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species124
58119342963 mechanisms in which bacteria transfer genetic materials1) Transformation: prokaryote takes up DNA from its environment 2) Transduction: viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes 3) Conjugation: genes are directly transferred from one prokaryote to another over a temporary "mating bridge"125
5811934297Types of Symbiotic RelationshipsMutualism (+, +), Commensalism (+, 0), Parasitism, (+, -)126
5811934298Factors that influence Transpiration RateTemperature: higher temperature, faster rate; Humidity: higher humidity, slower rate; Sunlight: more sun, faster rate; Wind: more wind, faster rate127
5811934299Lines of Immune Defense1st Line) skin oil and sweat, mucous; 2nd Line) nonspecific phagocytes and cytotoxic immune cells; 3rd Line) specific immune system128
5811934300Primary and Secondary Immune Response129
5811934301Active vs. Passive Immunitydepends on the response of a person's own immune system (artificial = vaccines) / immunity passed from one organism to another130
5811934302B cells vs. T cells (maturation)mature in bone marrow / mature in thymus131
5811934303Humoral vs. Cell-Mediated Immune Responses132
5811934304Non-steroid hormone vs. Steroid hormonetravels in bloodstream, binds to receptor on cell surface / travels in bloodstream, binds to receptor inside the cell133
5811934305Endotherms vs. Ectothermswarmed by heat generated by metabolism (mammals, birds) / generate little metabolic heat, warmed by environment134
5811934306Nichea position/role taken by a kind of organism within its community135
5811934307Resource Partitioningdivision of environmental resources by coexisting species136
5811934308Per capita Growth Ratebirth - death / total population137
5811934309Exponential vs. Logistic Growthin logistic growth, carrying capacity will limit the population's size138
5811934310Density-dependent RegulationDensity-independent: natural disasters, human impact, etc.139
5811934311Keystone Speciesspecies that exerts strong control on community structure not by numerical might but by their pivotal ecological roles or niches140
5811934312Energy Pyramideach energy level receives only 10% of the pervious level's energy141
5811934313Gross Primary Production vs. Net Primary Productiontotal amount of energy from light converted to chemical energy to organic molecules / GPP - energy used by primary producers for "autotrophic respiration"142
5811934314Carbon CycleConnect photosynthesis (fixation) to cellular respiration (CO2 release)143
5811934315Plasmidsa small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome144
5811934316Recombinant DNAa DNA vector made in vitro with segments from different sources145
5811934317Restriction Enzymean enzyme that recognizes and cuts DNA molecules at specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites), can then be used to create recombinant DNA146
5811934318Gel Electrophoresisanalyzing fragments of DNA (RFLPs) by their length and charge to determine genetic fingerprints and other genetic information147

Need Help?

We hope your visit has been a productive one. If you're having any problems, or would like to give some feedback, we'd love to hear from you.

For general help, questions, and suggestions, try our dedicated support forums.

If you need to contact the Course-Notes.Org web experience team, please use our contact form.

Need Notes?

While we strive to provide the most comprehensive notes for as many high school textbooks as possible, there are certainly going to be some that we miss. Drop us a note and let us know which textbooks you need. Be sure to include which edition of the textbook you are using! If we see enough demand, we'll do whatever we can to get those notes up on the site for you!