Chapter 10 Vocabulary for AP Biology
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| 7952432686 | Chlorophyll | Green Pigment Main photosynthetic pigmnet Absorbs primarily violet-blue and red wavelengths |  | 0 |
| 7952432687 | Thylakoids | dense interconnected membranous sacs where the light reactions occur |  | 1 |
| 7952432688 | Grana | stacks of thylakoid | 2 | |
| 7952432689 | Granum | singular of grana | 3 | |
| 7952432690 | Chloroplast | sites of photosynthesis | 4 | |
| 7952432691 | Photosynthesis | conversion of light energy into chemical energy stored in sugar and other organic molecules |  | 5 |
| 7952432692 | Photosynthesis Equation | 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2 | 6 | |
| 7952432693 | Carbon Dioxide | source of inorganic carbon used in photosynthesis | 7 | |
| 7952432694 | Electromagnetic Spectrum | Electromagnetic energy which travels in waves |  | 8 |
| 7952432695 | Colors | Light we see is reflected off objects and light we don't see is absorbed by objects | 9 | |
| 7952432696 | White | All colors reflected | 10 | |
| 7952432697 | Black | All colors absorbed | 11 | |
| 7952432698 | Chlorophyll a | main photosynthetic green pigment, absorbs primarily violet-blue and red wavelengths | 12 | |
| 7952432699 | Pigment | a molecule that absorbs wavelengths in the visible light spectrum | 13 | |
| 7952432700 | Carotenoid | Group of pigments that absorb blue and blue-green wavelengths, appear orange, yellow, and red | 14 | |
| 7952432701 | Light Reactions | Occur in thylakoid membrane and are also called light dependent reactions | 15 | |
| 7952432702 | Photosystem | Consists of a reaction-center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes which split water to create electrons that get transferred to NADP+ to create NADPH and H+ which are used to create ATP | 16 | |
| 7952432703 | Light-Harvesting Complex | Contains chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids (within the photosystem) that will trap light energy for use in the light reactions | 17 | |
| 7952432704 | Photosystem 1 | Has P700 chlorophyll a in reaction-center complex, thought to have evolved first because it can work alone to create primary acceptors, 2nd of the photosystems |  | 18 |
| 7952432705 | Photosystem 2 | Has P680 chlorophyll a in reaction-center complex, first of the photosystems. splits water into electrons, oxygen, and hydrogen ions | 19 | |
| 7952432706 | Cytochrome | Protein in the electron transport chain of the photosystems that transfers the electrons to create NADPH | 20 | |
| 7952432707 | Calvin Cycle | Light-Independent reactions Occurs in stoma, does not use light directly. Uses the enzyme Rubisco to create 2 molecules of G3P which is then either used to create glucose or recycled back into RuBP to restart the cycle |  | 21 |
| 7952432708 | Rubisco | The most abundant protein on Earth Carbon Fixation is catalyzed by Rubisco | 22 | |
| 7952432709 | Reduction | The carbon molecules made in Carbon Fixation are reduced into to G3P by adding the negative phosphate from a NADPH that can be used to make glucose or perform other processes | 23 | |
| 7952432710 | 1 Cycle of Calvin Cycle | 1 CO2 is fixed 3 ATP are used 2 NADPH are used 1 RuBP is regenerated 6 cycles needed to make 1 glucose molecule | 24 | |
| 7952432711 | C4 Photosynthesis | A method that bypasses photorespiration Happens in corn, sugarcane, and other plants in hot, dry environments Converts carbon dioxide to a 4-carbon intermediary which is then stored in bundle-sheath cells | 25 | |
| 7952432712 | C3 Plant | Plants that use the Calvin Cycle without creating carbon intermediaries, take in carbon dioxide through stomata. An enzyme called RuBisCO helps the carbon dioxide combine to make sugar. |  | 26 |
| 7952432713 | chlorophyll b | Pigment that absorbs light in the blue and orange light spectrum. Second major pigment used in plants. | 27 | |
| 7952432714 | CAM Plants | Plants that only open stomata at night. They convert carbon dioxide to malic acid which is then converted back into carbon dioxide during the day for the Calvin cycle | 28 | |
| 7952432715 | what is the formula for cellular respiration; expain it | C6H12O6 => 6CO2 + 6 H2O; the energy released from the chemical bondsin the complex organic molecules | 29 | |
| 7952432716 | respiration--preview | the catabolic process of releasing energy from food; food- stored energy in chemical bonds (used to generate ATP); ATP- usable energy for cell work | 30 | |
| 7952432717 | Redox reactions | the released of energy is dependent on the transfer of energy during reactions; electron transfers are called redox reactions because one substance is always reduced by the transfer | 31 | |
| 7952432718 | oxidation | loss of electrons; loss of energy; loss of hydrogens from carbons | 32 | |
| 7952432719 | reduction | gain of energy; gain of electrons; gain of hydrogens to carbons | 33 | |
| 7952432720 | reactions are usually | paired/linked together; look for these links as we study respiration | 34 | |
| 7952432721 | many of these reactions will be done by | phosphorylation | 35 | |
| 7952432722 | phosphorylation | adding a phosphate group to a molecule; the phosphate group adds energy to the molecule for chemical reactions | 36 | |
| 7952432723 | what are the 3 parts of cellular respiration | 1. glycolysis, 2. cirtric acid cycle (Krebs Cycle), and 3. electron transport chain+oxidative phosphorylation (uses chemiosmosis) | 37 | |
| 7952432724 | 1. Glycolysis | glyco- glucose; lysis- to split; universal step in all respiration types (aerobic and anaerobic) | 38 | |
| 7952432725 | what is the function of glycolysis | to split glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules and produce NADH and ATP (only 2 in this step are produced | 39 | |
| 7952432726 | what is the location of glycolysis | cytoplasm | 40 | |
| 7952432727 | electron carrier compounds | molecules that transport or shuttle electrons within the cell | 41 | |
| 7952432728 | what are the 2 forms of electron carrier compounds | oxidized (ex. NAD+, ADP) and reduced (ex. NADH, ATP) | 42 | |
| 7952432729 | what are the requirements for glycolysis | glucose (that will turn into 2 pyruvates), 2 ATP (to split glucose), ADP (that will turn into ATP later), and NAD+ (which is the oxidized form of NADH) | 43 | |
| 7952432730 | what are the products of glycolysis | 2 pyruvic acids (from the glucose split), 2 ATP (from ADP), and 2 NADH (from NAD+) | 44 | |
| 7952432731 | what is the function of the 2. Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle | oxidize pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide that will be released and also produces NADH and FADH2 | 45 | |
| 7952432732 | what is the location of the Krebs Cycle | inside and center in the mitochondria matrix | 46 | |
| 7952432733 | what are the requirements of the Krebs Cycle | pyruvic acid, coenzyme A, NAD+, ADP, FAD | 47 | |
| 7952432734 | what are the products of the Krebs Cycle | CO2 (from the pyruvic), Acetyl CoA (from coenzyme A), NADH (from NAD+), 2 ATP, FADH2 (carry more energy) | 48 | |
| 7952432735 | the Krebs Cycle does what | produces most of the cell's energy in the form of NADH and FADH2 and doesn't require O2 | 49 | |
| 7952432736 | the ATPs are poroduced directly in the | Krebs Cycle and Glycolysis by substrate-level phosphorylation and the Pi (inorganic phosphate) group is transferred from a substrate to ADP | 50 | |
| 7952432737 | most of the ATP in cellular respiration is produced in the third step: ____1____ ___2___, when NADH and FADH2 relay their electronsto the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and this energy is used to generate a lot of ATP through ___3___. | oxidative; phosphorylation; chemiosmosis | 51 | |
| 7952432738 | electron transport chain | a collection of proteins that are structurally linked into the innner membrane of mitochondria to produce ATP through electron transfers | 52 | |
| 7952432739 | the ETC uses | sets of cytochromes, iron (Fe) containing proteins to pass electrons down the chain | 53 | |
| 7952432740 | the cytochromes alternate | between reduced and oxidized forms and pass electrons down to O2 | 54 | |
| 7952432741 | each part of the chain will become | reduced as it accepts electrons from its uphill neighbor which has a lower affinity for electrons (less electronegative) | 55 | |
| 7952432742 | It then does what | returns to its oxidized form as it passes these electrons to the next neighbor | 56 | |
| 7952432743 | what is the function of the ETC | convert NADH and FADH2 into ATP | 57 | |
| 7952432744 | what is the location of the ETC | mitochondria cristae (inner folds of the membrane) | 58 | |
| 7952432745 | what are the requirements of the ETC | NADH or FADH2 (they are used from the Krebs Cycle), ADP, and O2 | 59 | |
| 7952432746 | what are the products of the ETC | NAD+ and FAD (from NADH and FADH2), H2O (from O2), 32-34 ATP through oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis | 60 | |
| 7952432747 | Chemiosmosis Hypothesis | FADH2 and NADH provide energy through electron transfer in the ETC to actively move H+ (protons) across the cristae membrane, building up a concentration gradient | 61 | |
| 7952432748 | Then, ATP is generated as the | H+ diffuse back across the membrane into the matrix down their concentration gradient | 62 | |
| 7952432749 | ATP synthase | a membrane enzyme that uses the flow of H+ to make ATP; as the H+ flow back down their concentration gradient through this enzyme, it spins an enzyme complex that accelerates the production of ATP from ADP | 63 | |
| 7952432750 | how do we make ATP without Oxygen (anaerobic respiration? | fermentation (uses only glycolysis to make ATP, no electron transport chain | 64 | |
| 7952432751 | what are the two types that differ in the final end product | alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation | 65 | |
| 7952432752 | what do both only produce | 2 ATP per glucose | 66 | |
| 7952432753 | It's not an efficient way to make ATP, but if you don't have oxygen, | two are better than none so it will keep you alive in an unfavorable environment | 67 | |
| 7952432754 | alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation both do what | use only glycolysis, are a incomplete oxidation--energy is still left in the products (ex. lactic acid for lactic acid fermentation and alcohol for alcoholic fermentation), and doesn't require oxygen | 68 | |
| 7952432755 | what is an example of alcoholic fermentation | yeast | 69 | |
| 7952432756 | what is an example of lactic acid fermentation | lactic acid | 70 | |
| 7952432757 | lactic acid fermentation is done by | human muscle cells under exercise that creates oxygen debt to keep generating ATP | 71 | |
| 7952432758 | Lactic acid is produced as a | bi-product that is recycled by the liver cells back into pyruvate so if oxygen does become available later, we can break it down in respiration | 72 | |
| 7952432759 | summary of fermentation | it is a way of oxidizing NADH to NAD+ so glycolysis can still run and it provides ATP to a cell even when oxygen is absent | 73 | |
| 7952432760 | anaerobes | organisms that carry out fermentation | 74 | |
| 7952432761 | strict anaerobes | can do only respiration this way; example: some bacteria | 75 | |
| 7952432762 | facultative anaerobes | can switch respiration types depending on the oxygen availability; example: yeast; muscle cells | 76 | |
| 7952432763 | anaerobic | respiration without oxygen; AKA fermentation--glucose goes through glycolysis only (yield of 2 ATPs per glucose) | 77 | |
| 7952432764 | aerobic | repiration with oxygen; glucose goes through all three respiration steps (yield of 36 ATPs per glucose) | 78 | |
| 7952432765 | Metabolism | the totality of an organisms chemical reactions that result from interactions between molecules within the cell | 79 | |
| 7952432766 | metabolic pathway | a sequence of chemical reactions undergone by a compound in a living organism, start with substrate end with product |  | 80 |
| 7952432767 | catabolic | breaking a complex molecule down into its simpler parts, releasing energy. ie. cellular respiration |  | 81 |
| 7952432768 | anabolic | using energy to build complex molecules from simpler molecules. ie. protein synthesis |  | 82 |
| 7952432769 | Bioenergetics | the study of how organisms manage their energy resources | 83 | |
| 7952432770 | energy | capacity to cause change, do work | 84 | |
| 7952432771 | kinetic energy | energy of motion | 85 | |
| 7952432772 | heat(thermal energy) | kinetic energy associated with random movement of molecules | 86 | |
| 7952432773 | potential energy | energy of position | 87 | |
| 7952432774 | chemical energy | potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction, energy within bonds | 88 | |
| 7952432775 | thermodynamics | study of energy transformations | 89 | |
| 7952432776 | closed system | isolated from surroundings, no energy transfer, cant work at equilibrium bc its exhausted its ability to do work. free energy at a min | 90 | |
| 7952432777 | open system | not isolated, energy and matter can be transferred between system and surroundings, ie. cells | 91 | |
| 7952432778 | 1st law of thermodynamics | energy of the universe is constant, cannot be created or destroyed, can only be transferred or transformed, conservation of energy | 92 | |
| 7952432779 | 2nd law of thermodynamics | during every energy transfer, some energy is unusable and often lost, every energy transfer or transformation increases the total entropy of the universe | 93 | |
| 7952432780 | entropy | disorder, randomness | 94 | |
| 7952432781 | free energy | delta G, energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are constant, related to change in enthalpy(delta H), change in entropy(delta S) and temperature in Kelvin(T). delta G = delta H - T delta S | 95 | |
| 7952432782 | exergonic reaction | a reaction with a net release of free energy, negative free energy, spontaneous |  | 96 |
| 7952432783 | endergonic reaction | a reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings, non-spontaneous, positive free energy |  | 97 |
| 7952432784 | coupled reactions | the use of exergonic processes to drive endergonic ones, the energy given off from the exergonic is absorbed by the endergonic |  | 98 |
| 7952432785 | ATP | adenosine triphosphate, composed of ribose (5 carbon sugar), adenine (nitrogenous base), and 3 phosphate groups. Phosphate tail can be broken through hydrolysis to produce energy, ADP, and an inorganic phosphate |  | 99 |
| 7952432786 | phosphorylation | how ATP drives endergonic reactions, covalently bonding a phosphate with another molecule, such as as reactant | 100 | |
| 7952432787 | catalyst | a chemical agent that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction | 101 | |
| 7952432788 | enzymes | a catalytic protein, speeds up metabolic reactions by lowering activation energy, very specific, reusable, unchanged by reaction | 102 | |
| 7952432789 | activation energy | initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction, free energy for activating reaction, given off by heat | 103 | |
| 7952432790 | induced fit | brings the chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction, makes the enzyme more effective | 104 | |
| 7952432791 | cooperativity | another type of allosteric activation, binds to one active site but locks ALL active sites open, allowing products to be constantly produced | 105 | |
| 7952432792 | Substrate | the REACTANT that an enzyme acts on | 106 | |
| 7952432793 | Enzyme-Substrate Complex | enzyme and substrate | 107 | |
| 7952432794 | Active Site | region on the enzyme where substrate binds | 108 | |
| 7952432795 | Hydrogen and Ionic Bonds | substrate held in active site by WEAK interactions | 109 | |
| 7952432796 | Lock and Key | active site on enzyme fits substrate exactly | 110 | |
| 7952432797 | If reaction doesnt need energy to start (exergonic) | How do you know if a reaction is spontaneous? | 111 | |
| 7952432798 | 3 kinds of cellular work done by ATP | Shuttle renewable and nonrenewable ENERGY, provide ENERGY for cellular functions, provide ENERGY for catabolic reactions | 112 | |
| 7952432799 | Ways enzymes lower activation energy | can do this by having a favorable environment, straining substrate molecules, orienting substrates correctly | 113 | |
| 7952432800 | hydrolysis | happens when phosphate leaves ATP to give energy to something else. This causes ATP to become ADP, produces water | 114 | |
| 7952432801 | cofactors | non-protein enzyme helpers ex. zinc, iron, copper | 115 | |
| 7952432802 | coenzymes | organic enzyme helpers ex. vitamens | 116 | |
| 7952432803 | Denature | above a certain temp activity declines, protein unwinds | 117 | |
| 7952432804 | Renature | coils it back to normal after temp gets too high and the activity decreased | 118 | |
| 7952432805 | Gene Regulation | cell switches on or off the genes that code for specific enzymes | 119 | |
| 7952432806 | Feedback inhibition | end product of a pathway that continues to produce product (positive) and then turns off (negative) | 120 | |
| 7952432807 | negative feedback inhibition | accumulation of end product slows the process that produces that amount -stop production | 121 | |
| 7952432808 | positive feedback inhibition | end product speeds up production (less common) | 122 | |
| 7952432809 | Allosteric Regulation | can accelerate or inhibit production and enzyme activity by attaching to another part of the protein. this changes the shape of the active site which inhibits substrates from bonding and producing more products | 123 | |
| 7952432810 | Activator | one of the allosteric regulators, stabilizes and keeps active site open for production, wedges open | 124 | |
| 7952432811 | Inhiibitor | one of the allosteric regulators, doesnt allow active site to work or produce, wedges closed | 125 | |
| 7952432812 | Competitive Inhibitor | inhibitor that mimics original substrate by blocking the original substrate | 126 | |
| 7952432813 | Noncompetetitive Inhibitor | bind to another part of enzyme to change shape and block substrate from producing | 127 | |
| 7952432814 | ways enzymes are affects | environment, pH, temp, salinity, chemicals that infuse enzyme, increase activity by increasing substrate concentration | 128 | |
| 7952432815 | exergonic | what reaction is spontaneous (-G) | 129 | |
| 7952432816 | endergonic | what reaction is not spontaneous (positive G) | 130 |
