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| 6303098014 | mass spectrometry | -can be used to determine the mass of various isotopes of a substance |  | 0 |
| 6303098015 | percent composition | mass of element / mass of compound | 1 | |
| 6303098016 | empirical formula | simplest ratio of a compound | 2 | |
| 6303098017 | molecular formula | actual formula for a substance | 3 | |
| 6303098018 | Aufbau principle | electrons occupy lowest available energy level | 4 | |
| 6303098019 | Pauli Exclusion Principle | within an atom no 2 e- can have the same set of quantum numbers; if an orbital has 2 e-, they must have different spins | 5 | |
| 6303098020 | Hund's Rule | when an e- is added to a subshell, it will always occupy an empty orbital if avaliable | 6 | |
| 6303098021 | quantized energy levels | -e- can only exist at specific energy levels -as they get farther from the nucleus, their potential energy increases | 7 | |
| 6303098022 | Coulomb's law | -can calculate the energy an atom has based on its distance from the nucleus -greater the charge of the nucleus, the more energy the e- will have -the closer the e- to the nucleus, the more energy the e- will have | 8 | |
| 6303098023 | Quantum Theory | energy changes occur in steps | 9 | |
| 6303098024 | Bohr Model | -electrons are present in specific energy levels -when e- gain energy, they move up energy levels, while e- release energy as they move down |  | 10 |
| 6303098025 | energy/ wavelength/ frequency | E = hv = hc / λ -E = energy change -h = Plank's constant-6.63 x 10^-34 -v = frequency -λ = wavlength -c = speed of light 3.00 x 10^8 -higher frequency and short wavelength means more energy | 11 | |
| 6303098026 | frequency and wavelength | c = λv -c = speed of light-3.00 x 10^8 -λ = wavelength -v = frequency | 12 | |
| 6303098027 | ionization energy (aka binding energy) | -amount of energy necessary to remove an e- from an atom; related to effective nuclear charge -↑ across a period -↓ down a group -second i.e. > first i.e. -i.e. gradually increases each successive time, until the outer shell is empty, then it increases a lot | 13 | |
| 6303098028 | kinetic energy | -energy of motion | 14 | |
| 6303098029 | photoelectron spectra (PES) | -amount of ionization energy for all e- ejected from a nucleus -graph that charts the binding/ionization energy against the number of electrons -each peak in the graph represents an subshell | 15 | |
| 6303098030 | electron configuration | -use the periodic table to do this; note that the p's start w/ 2, d's w/ 3, and f's with 4 -shorthand method: write noble gas to stand for the configuration up to that element |  | 16 |
| 6303098031 | John Dalton | -said there are different types of atoms, called elements -elements combine, forming compounds -compounds have the same ratio of elements -atoms are never created or destroyed in chemical reactions | 17 | |
| 6303098032 | J.J. Thomson | -cathode ray experiment -put forth plum pudding model |  | 18 |
| 6303098033 | Millikan | -created oil-drop experiment to find the mass and charge of an individual electron | 19 | |
| 6303098034 | Rutherford | -gold foil experiment→fired alpha particles @ gold foil and saw how they scattered -concluded that: (1) atom was mostly empty space (2) all the positive charge was concentrated in the middle of the atom |  | 20 |
| 6303098035 | Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle | -it is impossible to know both the position and velocity of an e- @ any given moment | 21 | |
| 6303098036 | electron attractedness | -↑ attraction when closer to nucleus -↑ attraction when more protons in nucleus -repelled by other e- | 22 | |
| 6303098037 | metals | -left hand side of periodic table -give up e- in ionic bonds |  | 23 |
| 6303098038 | non-metals | -upper right hand of periodic table -gain e- in ionic bonds | | 24 |
| 6303098039 | atomic radius | -↓ across a period -↑ down a group -cations < atoms -anions > atoms | 25 | |
| 6303098040 | electronegativity | -atom's ability to pull electrons toward itself when involved in a chemical bond -↑ across a period -↓ down a group | 26 | |
| 6303098041 | ionic bond | -electrostatic attraction between ions (e- are given up, creating ions) -creates a lattice structure; greater the charges and smaller the ions, greater the lattice energy -high melting/boiling points |  | 27 |
| 6303098042 | metallic bonds | -metals can bond with themselves, forming a sea of electrons -metals can bond with other metals, forming alloys; alloys are interstitial if between atoms w/ vastly different radii or substitutional when between atoms w/ similar radii | 28 | |
| 6303098043 | covalent bonds | -2 atoms share electrons | 29 | |
| 6303098044 | conductors: ionic compounds | -ionic solids do not conduct electricity -ionic liquids do conduct electricity | 30 | |
| 6303098045 | sigma (σ) bond | -first covalent bond | 31 | |
| 6303098046 | pi (π) bond | -2nd and 3rd bonds in a covalent compound | 32 | |
| 6303098047 | as the number of covalent bond increases... | -...the bond length decreases -...the bond energy increases | 33 | |
| 6303098048 | polar covalent bond | -e- are unequally shared b/c atoms have different electronegativities; greater the difference in electronegativities, more polar the bond -molecule has dipole moment | 34 | |
| 6303098049 | Intermolecular forces | -aka IMF's -only exist in covalently bonded molecules -includes network covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole forces, and london dispersion forces | 35 | |
| 6303098050 | network covalent bond | -lattice of covalent bonds; usually occurs w/ carbon or silicon -poor conductors of electricity -highest melting and boiling points | 36 | |
| 6303098051 | hydrogen bond | -like a dipole-dipole, but stronger -hydrogen end of molecule attracted to F/O/N -high melting/boiling points | 37 | |
| 6303098052 | dipole-dipole force | -positive end of one polar molecule attracted to negative end of another -greater the polarity, greater the dipole-dipole -low melting/boiling points | 38 | |
| 6303098053 | London Dispersion Forces (LDF's) | -weak attraction due to e- movement that forms a temporary dipole -larger the molecule, larger the LDF -low melting/boiling points | 39 | |
| 6303098054 | How to Draw a Lewis Structure | 1. count up number of total valence e- (add e- for anions; subtract for cations); this is how many e- should be in your final answer 2. draw molecule w/ bonds so that each molecule has full octet | 40 | |
| 6303098055 | electron-deficient | -Boron--> only needs 6 e- to be stable (BF₃) -Beryllium--> only needs 4 e- (BeCl₂) | 41 | |
| 6303098056 | exceeding octet rule | -element must be in 3rd period or higher -exceeds by using d orbital -ex--> SF₆, PCl₅, XeO₃, ICl₄⁻, ClF₃ | 42 | |
| 6303098057 | resonance form | -occurs when 2+ Lewis structures can be made for a molecule -can be flipped to resemble each other -'real' molecule is an average of these structures |  | 43 |
| 6303098058 | formal charge | -(normal valence e- # for atom) - ((# of lone pair e-) + 1/2(# of shared e-)) -sum of the formal charges must = the charge of the molecule/ion -negative formal charges should reside on the most electronegative atom -the best Lewis structures have mostly 0 formal charges | 44 | |
| 6303098059 | VSEPR Model | -model used to predict molecular geometry -double/triple bonds treated same way as single bonds -lone e- pairs occupy more space than bonding pairs | 45 | |
| 6303098060 | linear | -2 e- groups -180° apart |  | 46 |
| 6303098061 | hybridization | -mixing atomic orbitals to from special orbitals for bonding -individual atom (normally center atom in a molecule) does this -based on how many e- areas (lone pair groups, bonds)are around the atom; for ea. e- area, one orbital added -ex-->O in H₂O has 4 e- areas, so: sp³ C in CO₂ has 2 e- areas, so: sp P in PCl₅ has 5 e- areas, so: sp³d | 47 | |
| 6303098062 | trigonal planar | -3 e- groups -120° apart |  | 48 |
| 6303098063 | bent | -2 e- groups -normally in the molecular shape b/c two lone pairs were lost from tetrahedral (or one pair from trigonal planar) |  | 49 |
| 6303098064 | tetrahedral | -4 e- groups -109° apart |  | 50 |
| 6303098065 | trigonal pyramidal | -3 e- groups -normally in the molecular shape b/c one lone pair from the tetrahedral was lost |  | 51 |
| 6303098066 | molecular shape | -the electronic shape minus the lone pairs |  | 52 |
| 6303098067 | electronic shape | -all e- counted; lone pairs counted like bonds |  | 53 |
| 6303098068 | trigonal bipyramidal | -5 e- groups -120° (in triangle), 90° (up/down elements) -when lone pairs are removed for molecular, they are removed from the trigonal planar part b/c bond angle is larger--> can become see-saw, T-shaped, or linear |  | 54 |
| 6303098069 | octahedral | -6 e- groups -90° -when lone pairs removed shapes are: square pyramid, square planar |  | 55 |
| 6303098070 | phase and IMF's | -molecules w/ weak IMF's tend to be gases at room temperature -molecules w/ strong IMF's tend to be solids @ room temp. | 56 | |
| 6303098071 | Ideal Gas Equation | PV = nRT -P = pressure in atm -V = volume in liters -n = moles -R = .0821 -T = temperature in Kelvin | 57 | |
| 6303098072 | Kinetic Molecular Theory | 1. volume of gas particles = 0 (b/c they're so small compared w/ distance between them) 2. Pressure is caused by collisions of particles with walls 3. Particles don't attract/repel each other 4. Avg. kinetic energy = 1.5R/T | 58 | |
| 6303098073 | Variation of Ideal Gas Equation | -@ constant temp: PV = PV -@ constant pressure: V/T = V/T -constant temp/pressure: V/n = V/n (n = # of moles) | 59 | |
| 6303098074 | Dalton's Law | -total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of all the partial pressures of gases | 60 | |
| 6303098075 | Partial Pressure | = (total pressure)(moles of gas A/ total moles of gas) | 61 | |
| 6303098076 | Deviation of Ideal Gas | -happens at low temp. or high pressure -this is b/c the volume of gas molecules become relevant, raising the volume and gas molecules can start attracting each other, lowering the pressure | 62 | |
| 6303098077 | Molarity | moles of solute / liters of solution | 63 | |
| 6303098078 | mole fraction | moles of substance A / total moles of solution | 64 | |
| 6303098079 | synthesis reaction | -simple compounds combined to form one, more complex, compound |  | 65 |
| 6303098080 | decomposition reaction | -a single compound is split into 2+ compounds |  | 66 |
| 6303098081 | acid-base reaction | -an acid reacts with a base to form water and a salt -ex→ HCl + NaOH → H₂O + NaCl | 67 | |
| 6303098082 | oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction | -oxidation states of some participating molecules -ex→ Cu²⁺ + 2e- → Cu | 68 | |
| 6303098083 | precipitation reaction | -2 aqueous solutions mix and an insoluble salt is created | 69 | |
| 6303098084 | net ionic equation | -spectator ions that stay aqueous on both the reactants and products side are not included | 70 | |
| 6303098085 | solubility rules | -compounds w/ an alkali metal are soluble -compounds w/ an NH₄⁺ are soluble -compounds w/ an NO₃⁻ are soluble | 71 | |
| 6303098086 | limiting reactant problems | 1. pick one product, and see how many moles of that product each reactant would make 2. the reactant making the least amount of the product is the limiting reactant | 72 | |
| 6303098087 | enthalpy change (∆H) | -= H(reactants) - H(products) -energy is released when bonds are formed -energy is absorbed when bonds are broken -positive = endothermic; negative = exothermic | 73 | |
| 6303098088 | energy diagrams | -displays the reaction as a graph |  | 74 |
| 6303098089 | catalyst | -lowers the activation energy by displaying an alternate path -in a rxn mechanism, it would be in reactants of 1st step and products of last step, but not in overall equation |  | 75 |
| 6303098090 | oxidation states--covalent compound | -if they are identical atoms, the e- are split equally (o.s. of 0) -if they are different atoms, the e- are given to the atom with stronger attraction to e- | 76 | |
| 6303098091 | oxidation states--ionic compounds | -same as the ion charge | 77 | |
| 6303098092 | oxidation states | -of a compound, they must = 0 or the charge of the ion -help keep track of e- in redox rxns | 78 | |
| 6303098093 | an atom is oxidized | -when the atom's o.s. decreases as it gains e- | 79 | |
| 6303098094 | an atom is reduced | -when the atom's o.s. increases as it loses e- | 80 | |
| 6303098095 | oxidation states--special cases | -Fluorine→o.s. of -1 -Oxygen→o.s. of -2 in covalent; -1 in peroxides; +2 in OF₂ -Hydrogen→o.s. of +1 in covalent w/ nonmetals | 81 | |
| 6303098096 | oxidation states--atom/one element | -is always 0 -ex→F₂, Hg | 82 | |
| 6303098097 | rate law | rate law = k[A]ⁿ[B]∧m[C]∧p -[x] = concentration of reactant -n/m/p = 0,1, or 2 -k = rate constant -greater the order, the more that reactant affects the rate | 83 | |
| 6303098098 | determining order (rate law) | -[A1] times x equals [A2]= rate1 times y equals rate2 -if x⁰ = 1 = y, zero order -if x¹ = y, first order -if x² = y, second order | 84 | |
| 6303098099 | first order rate law | -ln[A] = -kt + ln[A]₀ -straight line when time v. ln(concentration); slope of this line is -k | 85 | |
| 6303098100 | second order rate law | -1/[A] = kt + 1/[A]₀ -straight line when time v. 1/concentration; slope of k | 86 | |
| 6303098101 | zero order rate law | -[A] = -kt + [A]₀ -slope of graph = -k -straight line when time v. concentration | 87 | |
| 6303098102 | finding half-life | 1. take the rate law equation (either 0, 1, or 2 order) and plug 1 in for [A₀] and 1/2 in for [A] 2. solve for t to find half-life Hint: for 1st order it's .693/k | 88 | |
| 6303098103 | collision theory | molecules must collide with correct orientation and enough energy in order to react | 89 | |
| 6303098104 | reaction rate increases... | ...as concentration of reactants increases -as temperature increases -as surface area increases -as volume decreases -when a catalyst is added | 90 | |
| 6303098105 | Beer's Law | A = abc -A = absorbance -a = molar absorptivity constant -b = path length (how far light travels thru solution) -c = concentration of soln. -used w/ a spectrophotometer to find absorbency and concentration | 91 | |
| 6303098106 | reaction mechanism | -series of individual chemical (elementary) steps by which an overall chemical reaction occurs | 92 | |
| 6303098107 | intermediate | -species that is formed in one elementary step and consumed in the next so it is NOT a product or reaction in the overall equation | 93 | |
| 6303098108 | rate determining step | slowest step; the rate law = those reactants' molarity raised to the power of their coefficient | 94 | |
| 6303098109 | heat | -total energy due to molecular motions in a substance (not the same as temperature) | 95 | |
| 6303098110 | temperature | -measurement of the average kinetic energy of a substance (not the same as heat) | 96 | |
| 6303098111 | types of energy transfer | -heat (energy goes from a warm object to a cold one) -work (substance is stirred, raising its energy) | 97 | |
| 6303098112 | first law of thermodynamics | -energy of the universe is constant -energy can't be created or destroyed, only converted | 98 | |
| 6303098113 | second law of thermodynamics | -if a reaction happens spontaneously (on its own) in one direction, it won't happen spontaneously in the reverse direction -entropy of universe increases during spontaneous reaction | 99 | |
| 6303098114 | state functions | -enthalpy (H), entropy (S), and free-energy (G) change -don't depend on the actual process of the reaction -depend only the initial and final states | 100 | |
| 6303098115 | standard state conditions | -are true when you see a °, like H° -include: gases @ 1atm, pure solids/liquids. 1M substances, element @ normal states has energy of formation (∆H°ƒ) of 0 | 101 | |
| 6303098116 | Heat of formation, ∆H° | -change in energy when 1 mole of a compound is formed from pure elements -exothermic → H is negative -endothermic → H is positive -pure element → H is zero = ∑∆H°ƒ reactants- ∑∆H°ƒ products | 102 | |
| 6303098117 | bond energy | -energy required to break a bond -always endothermic and positive -∆H° = ∑ bond energy of broken bonds - ∑ bond energy of formed bonds | 103 | |
| 6303098118 | Hess's Law | -if a reaction happens in multiple steps, you can add the ∆H values of the steps together -if you flip the equation, flip the sign of the ∆H -if you multiply/divide the equation, multiply/divide the ∆H | 104 | |
| 6303098119 | vapor pressure | -pressure of the molecules as they escape from the surface -water boils when vapor pressure = atmospheric pressure | 105 | |
| 6303098120 | heat of fusion | -energy that must be put into a solid to melt it | 106 | |
| 6303098121 | heat of vaporization | -energy needed to turn a liquid into a gas | 107 | |
| 6303098122 | phase diagram | -in water (when solid is less dense than liquid) line between solid/liquid slopes downward |  | 108 |
| 6303098123 | heat capacity | -measure of how much the temperature of an object is raised when is absorbs heat -large = absorbs a lot w/o changing temp. | 109 | |
| 6303098124 | specific heat | -amount of heat needed to raise 1g of a substance 1°C | 110 | |
| 6303098125 | heat added/ calorimetry equation | q = mc∆T -q - heat added (J or cal) -m - mass -c - specific heat -∆T - temperature change | 111 | |
| 6303098126 | entropy (∆S) | -measure of the randomness -entropy of solid < liquid < gas -two moles have more entropy than one | 112 | |
| 6303098127 | Gibbs free energy (∆G) | -measure of whether a process will proceed w/o outside energy -∆G positive→ won't happen -∆G negative → will happen -∆G = 0 → equilibrium = ∑∆G°ƒ products - ∑∆G°ƒ reactants | 113 | |
| 6303098128 | equilibrium | when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction | 114 | |
| 6303098129 | law of mass action (Keq) | -for aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD, Keq = [C]^c [D]^d / [A]^a [B]^b -only gases and aqueous substances are included | 115 | |
| 6303098130 | What does the Keq mean? | -if it's large, then products are favored at equilibrium -if it's small, then reactants are favored at equilibrium | 116 | |
| 6303098131 | Different K's | -Kc → constant for molar concentrations -Kp → constant for partial pressures -Ksp → solubility product -Ka → acid constant for weak acids -Kb → base constant for weak bases -Kw → water ionization | 117 | |
| 6303098132 | Le Chatelier's Law | -whenever stress is placed on a reaction @ equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift to relieve the stress -stress can be concentration, temp., pressure, volume | 118 | |
| 6303098133 | Le Chatelier's Law--Concentration | -if the concentration increases equilibrium will shift away from that substance -if the concentration decreases equilibrium will shift towards that substance | 119 | |
| 6303098134 | Le Chatelier's Law--Volume | -if the volume decreases (increases) then equilibrium will shift toward the side with less (more) moles of gas molecules | 120 | |
| 6303098135 | Le Chatelier's Law--Temperature | -exothermic → heat is a product -endothermic → heat is a reactant -treat like concentration problem | 121 | |
| 6303098136 | Le Chatelier's Law--Pressure | -if the pressure decreases (increases) then equilibrium will shift toward the side with more (less) molecules of gas -if a inert gas is added, there will be no change | 122 | |
| 6303098137 | reaction quotient, Q | -determined just like equilibrium constant, K, but using initial conditions | 123 | |
| 6303098138 | comparing K and Q | -if K > Q, then more products need to be made -if Q > K, then more reactants are needed -if Q = K, then the reaction is at equilibrium | 124 | |
| 6303098139 | K in a multistep reaction | -if reactions are added together, then their K's must be multiplied | 125 | |
| 6303098140 | Ksp | -measure of how much a salt disassociates in a solution -higher the Ksp, more soluble the salt | 126 | |
| 6303098141 | Arrhenius Acid-Base Definition | -acid → substance that produces H⁺ ions -base → substance that produces OH⁻ ions | 127 | |
| 6303098142 | Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base Definition | -acid → proton donor -base → proton acceptor | 128 | |
| 6303098143 | conjugate base | -used to be part of an acid; now acts as a base because it will accept an H⁺ -ex → Cl⁻ from HCl | 129 | |
| 6303098144 | conjugate acid | -used to be part of an base; now acts as a acid because it will donate an H⁺ -ex → NH₄⁺ from NH₃ | 130 | |
| 6303098145 | how to find pH | pH = -log[H⁺] pOH = -log[OH⁻] pH + pOH = 14 | 131 | |
| 6303098146 | weak acid | -acid that will only dissociate a little when placed in water -Ka = [A⁻][H⁺]/[HA] -greater the Ka, more dissociation, stronger the acid | 132 | |
| 6303098147 | weak base / Kb = | -base that will only dissociate a little when placed in water -Kb = [HA][OH⁻]/[B] -greater the Kb, more dissociation, stronger the base | 133 | |
| 6303098148 | strong acid | -completely dissociates in water -HCl, HBr, HI, HClO₄, HNO₃, H₂SO₄ | 134 | |
| 6303098149 | strong base | -completely dissociates in water -alkali metals and Ba, Sr -LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)₂, Sr(OH)₂ | 135 | |
| 6303098150 | Kw | -water dissociation constant = 1.0 x 10⁻¹⁴ = [H⁺][OH⁻] = KaKb | 136 | |
| 6303098151 | Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation | -use for buffers; when you have a weak acid and conjugate base or weak base and conjugate acid pH = -log(Ka) + log([base] / [acid]) | 137 | |
| 6303098152 | buffer | -consists of weak acid and conjugate base OR weak base and conjugate acid pH = pKa + log([base]/[acid]) | 138 | |
| 6303098153 | amphoteric | -substance that can act as a base or an acid | 139 | |
| 6303098154 | polyprotic acids | -have more than one H⁺ -ex → H₂SO₄, H₃PO₄ -will give off one H⁺ at a time; each successive acid is weaker | 140 | |
| 6303098155 | titration curve--SA w/ SB | -starts near 1, ends near 14 -equivalence point at 7 |  | 141 |
| 6303098156 | equivalence point | -point in a titration where H⁺ and OH⁻ concentrations are equal |  | 142 |
| 6303098157 | titration curve--WA w/ SB | -starts near 3, ends near 14 -equivalence point above 7 | 143 | |
| 6303098158 | titration curve--polyprotic acid | -has as many equivalence points as it does H⁺'s -equivalence points are equidistant from each other | 144 | |
| 6303098159 | titration lab | -rinse buret with solution to be used -if it's rinsed with water, the solution will be diluted and the volume of the titrant will be too much | 145 | |
| 6303098160 | massing objects | -don't mass hot objects; they don't measure correctly -don't weigh stuff directly on a scale | 146 | |
| 6303098161 | what is a galvanic cell | -a redox reaction is separating into the oxidation and reduction parts to generate current | 147 | |
| 6303098162 | anode | -electrode where oxidation happens in a galvanic cell | 148 | |
| 6303098163 | cathode | -electrode where reduction happens in a galvanic cell | 149 | |
| 6303098164 | parts of a galvanic cell | -salt bridge--> maintains neutrailty; ions flow into anode side -wire--> e- move from anode to cathode -solid and aqueous ions--> same type are together in a container |  | 150 |
| 6303098165 | galvanic cell equation | -take both half-reactions and decide to 'flip' one of them to make in an oxidation reaction -'flip' the one that, when its E° turns negative, adding the E°'s together won't make a negative number -note: current and work can only be done if E° is positive | 151 | |
| 6303098166 | electrolytic cell | -outside energy source is used to force a non-spontaneous reaction | 152 | |
| 6303098167 | electroplating conversions | 1. know that 1 amp = 1 C / sec and that there are 96,500 C / mol e- 2. starts with the time given, convert to seconds, then C, then mol e-, then the moles of e- in problem, and then moles of the metal (or vice verse) note: moles of the metal is found when making/canceling out the equation | 153 | |
| 6303098168 | thermodynamics | -says whether a rxn will occur; not how fast it will ocurr | 154 | |
| 6303098169 | entropy | -S° -measures the randomness/disorder -reactions will favor increases in entropy - (more entropy) gas, aqueous, liquid, solid (less entropy) | 155 | |
| 6303098170 | Gibbs Free Energy, G | -if ∆G is negative, rxn is thermodynamically favored (spontaneous) -if ∆G is positive, rxn is thermodynamically unfavored (NOT spontaneous) -if ∆G = 0, rxn is at equilibrium -∆G° = ∑(n(G° product)) - ∑(n(G° reactant)) (same formula for ∆S, ∆H) | 156 | |
| 6303098171 | ∆G° = ∆H° - T∆S° | -make sure units are right! 1 kJ = 1000 J (just add 3 zeros) - -H, +S = -G (spontaneous) - -H, -S = -G (@ low temp.), +G (@ high temp.) - +H, +S = -G (@ high temp.), -G (@ low temp.) - +H, -S = +G (not spontaneous) | 157 | |
| 6303098172 | ∆G° = -nFE° | -n = number of moles of e- -F = Farday's constant (96,500 C / mol e-) -E = energy potential (1V = 1 J / C) | 158 | |
| 6303098173 | photon | -increase the energy of the photon by increasing the frequency | 159 | |
| 6303098174 | electromagnetic radiation spectrum | -listing in increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength -radio / infrared / visible / UV / x-ray / gamma | 160 | |
| 6303098175 | sublimation | solid to gas | 161 | |
| 6303098176 | Boyle's Law | P₁V₁=P₂V₂ | 162 | |
| 6303098177 | effective nuclear charge | -as this increases, ionization / binding energy increases -nucleus' pull on electrons, partially weakened by shielding effect | 163 | |
| 6303098178 | chromatography | -paper is somewhat polar, so if your solvent is non-polar the polar molecules will be low on the paper while the non-polar molecules will travel with the solvent to the top | 164 | |
| 6303098179 | pKa | the pH that is halfway to the equivalence point | 165 | |
| 6303098180 | [H⁺] = | = 10^-pH | 166 |
