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| 9837135496 | Geologic Time Scale | -Earth is about 4.5 billion years old -Rock layers(strata) are laid down in succession with each strata representing a slice of time | 0 | |
| 9837135497 | Superposition | Any given stratum is older than those above it and younger than those below it | 1 | |
| 9837135498 | Earth's timeline | =3.5-4.5 billion years ago: Earth cools =1.5-3.5 billion years ago: bacteria and single cell organisms with no nucleus(prokaryotes) develop =700 million-1.5 billion years ago: single cell organisms with nucleus(eukaryotes) develop =400 million-700 million years ago: multicellular life develops in seas -400 million years ago: multicellular life begins to develop on land | 2 | |
| 9837135499 | Cenozoic Era | -Most recent of the geological eras and covers the period from 65.5 million years ago to the present -Continents moved into their current positions -Appearance of first humans; dominance of land by mammals, birds, and insects -Rise of civilization -A period of long-term cooling(Ice Age) followed by recent global warming -Increases in the number of species of herbs and grasses | 3 | |
| 9837135500 | Mesozoic Era | -Occurred 65 million to 225 million years ago and is often called the "Age of Reptiles" -Continents drifted apart and provided for an increase in species -Climate was exceptionally warm throughout the period and played an important role in the evolution and diversification of new animal species -By the end of the Mesozoic, the basis of modern life was in place | 4 | |
| 9837135501 | Paleozoic Era | -Occurred 225 million to 570 million years ago -Throughout the early Paleozoic, the Earth's land mass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents -Toward the end of the era, the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called "Pangea", which included most of the Earth's land area -At the start of the era, all life was confined to bacteria, algae, and sponges -By the end of the era, the first large reptiles and the first modern plants(conifers) had developed | 5 | |
| 9837135502 | Cambrian Explosion | Relatively rapid appearance of most major animal phyla and accompanied by major diversification of other organisms. The rate of evolution accelerated y an order of magnitude during this time period | 6 | |
| 9837135503 | Layers of the Earth | Includes the Lithosphere(Crust, Mantle), Asthenosphere, Outer core, and Inner core |  | 7 |
| 9837135504 | Continental Drift Theory(Evidence supporting the Existence of Pangaea) | -All present day continents derived from one large land mass(Pangaea) -Pangaea began to break apart about 200 million years ago -Theory backed up by: -Fossilized tropical plants found beneath ice caps -Glaciated landscapes occur in Africa and South America -Current tropical regions had polar climates in the past -Continents fit together like pieces from a puzzle -Similarities in rocks between the Americas and Africa-Europe -Paleomagnetic data | 8 | |
| 9837135505 | Seafloor Spreading Theory | -Occurs at mid-ocean ridges where new oceanic rust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge -Youngest rock occurs at ridge and gets progressively older as it moves away |  | 9 |
| 9837135506 | Subduction Convergent Plate Boundaries | -Two plates slide toward each other forming either a subduction zone(if one plate moved underneath the other) or an orogenic belt) if the two plate collide and compress) -When a denser oceanic plate moves underneath a less dense continental plate, an oceanic trench is produced on the ocean side and a mountain range forms on the continental side(e.g., Cascade Mountains) |  | 10 |
| 9837135507 | Divergent Plate Boundaries | -Two plates slide apart from each other. Most occur at bottom of oceans(seafloor spreading) -Black smokers or deep sea vents are common. When mid-oceanic ridge is above sea level, volcanic islands form(e.g., Iceland) |  | 11 |
| 9837135508 | Transform Plate Boundaries | -Two plates slide past each other. Friction causes earthquakes(e.g., San Andres Fault) -No volcanic activity |  | 12 |
| 9837135509 | Earthquakes | -Result from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust creating seismic waves -If epicenter is located offshore, tsunami is possible -Can be caused by rupture of geological faults, volcanic activity, landslides, and major human activity(e.g., mine blasts, nuclear) -Can result in landslides, avalanches, fires tsunamis, loss of life, higher insurance premiums, infrastructure damage, and collapse of buildings -Liquefaction of soil occurs when water-saturated granular soil temporarily loses it strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid | 13 | |
| 9837135510 | Focus | Earthquake's point of initial rupture | 14 | |
| 9837135511 | Epicenter | The point on the surface directly above the focus | 15 | |
| 9837135512 | S-Waves | -Move through the body of an object -Up and down motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation -Are like waves in a rope -Arrive after P-waves on an earthquake seismogram because S-waves travel more slowly in rock -Do not travel through liquids | 16 | |
| 9837135513 | P-Waves | -Shake the ground back and forth in the same direction and the opposite direction as the direction the wave is moving -Have the highest velocity and are therefore the first to be recorded on a seismogram -Earthquake advance warning is possible by detecting the non-destructive P-waves that travel more quickly through the Earth's crust(similar to hearing thunder before lightning strikes) -Travel through solids and liquids | 17 | |
| 9837135557 | Seismogram Diagram |  | 18 | |
| 9837135514 | Tsuanmis | -Series of waves created when a body of water is rapidly displaced, usually by an earthquake -Can be generated when plate boundaries abruptly move and vertically displace the overlying water -Subduction zone related earthquakes generate the majority of all tsunamis -Have a small wave height offshore, very long wavelength, and generally pass unnoticed at sea -Most are generated in the Pacific and Indian Ocean basins | 19 | |
| 9837135515 | Volcanoes | -A volcano is an opening or rupture in the crust that allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape from below the surface -Generally found where tectonic plates are pulled apart or come together. -Examples: Mid-Atlantic Ridge has volcanoes caused by divergent(pulling apart) tectonic plates; Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent(coming together) tectonic plates -Volcanoes can also form where there is thinning and stretching of the Earth's crust(e.g., African Rift Valley) | 20 | |
| 9837135516 | Volcano Structure | Look on card 18 for more detail |  | 21 |
| 9837135517 | Atmospheric Effects of Volcanoes | -CO2 gas introduced into atmosphere by volcanoes is about 150 times less than CO2 produced by man-made activity -Most acidic gases from volcanoes are released into troposphere and eventually are washed out by rain. Can affect acid-rain effects -Volcanic eruptions enhance the haze effect and thus lower average global temperatures -Sulfur combines with water vapor in the stratosphere to form dense clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets that take several years to settle out -These droplets also absorb solar radiation and scatter it back to space -Ash eruptions can result in "nuclear winter scenario". -Ex: Pinatubo and Krakatoa | 22 | |
| 9837135518 | Seasons, Solar Intensity, and Latitude | -Factors that affect the amount of solar energy at the surface of the Earth(which is directly correlated with plant productivity) include: -Earth's rotation(once every 24 hours) -Earth's revolution around the sun(once per year) -Tilt of the Earth's axis -Atmospheric conditions -Summer occurs in the Northern Hemisphere when the Earth is tilted more toward the Sun -The Earth is closer to the Sun during the Northern Hemisphere winter(it is the angle of the Sun's rays that determines the amount of solar radiation) | 23 | |
| 9837135519 | Soil Formation | Soils are formed through the interaction of five major factors: Time, Climate, Parent Material, Topography and Relief, and Organisms | 24 | |
| 9837135520 | Time | -A major factor that affects Soil Formation -Takes several thousand years for significant changes to take place | 25 | |
| 9837135521 | Climate | -A major factor that affects Soil Formation -Particularly temperature, precipitation, and frost action. It directly affects the type of vegetation in an area, which in turn affects soil-forming processes | 26 | |
| 9837135522 | Parent Material | -A major factor that affects Soil Formation -Underlying geological material(generally bedrock or a superficial or drift deposit) in which soil horizons form | 27 | |
| 9837135523 | Topography and Relief | -A major factor that affects Soil Formation -The shape of the land surface, slope, and position on the landscape | 28 | |
| 9837135524 | Organisms | -A major factor that affects Soil Formation -Include bacteria, fungi, vegetation, and animals and influence the effect on the chemical and physical environment of the soils | 29 | |
| 9837135525 | Soil Components | -Includes Clay, Gravel, Loam, Sand, and Silt | 30 | |
| 9837135526 | Clay | -A soil component -Very fine particles -Compacts easily -Forms large, dense clumps when wet -Low permeability to water; therefore, upper layers become waterlogged | 31 | |
| 9837135527 | Gravel | -A soil component -Coarse particles -Consist of rock fragments | 32 | |
| 9837135528 | Loam | -A soil component -About equal mixtures of clay, sand, and silt -Rich in nutrients -Holds water but does not become waterlogged | 33 | |
| 9837135529 | Sand | -A soil component -Sedimentary material coarser than silt -Water flows through too quickly for most crops -Good for crops and plants requiring low amounts of water | 34 | |
| 9837135530 | Silt | -A soil component -Sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles between the size of sand and clay. -Easily transported by water | 35 | |
| 9837135531 | Soil Profile | -Includes O Horizon(surface litter), A Horizon(Zone of Leaching and Topsoil), E Horizon(Zone of Leaching), B Horizon(Subsoil), and C Horizon(weathered parent material |  | 36 |
| 9837135532 | O Horizon | 1. Surface litter -leaves and partially decomposed organic debris -May be very thick in deciduous forests and very thin in tundra and desert | 37 | |
| 9837135533 | A Horizon(Zone of Leaching) | 1. Topsoil -Organic matter(humus), living organisms, inorganic minerals -The topsoil is typically very thick in grasslands | 38 | |
| 9837135534 | E Horizon | 1. Zone of Leaching -Dissolved and suspended materials move downward | 39 | |
| 9837135535 | B Horizon | 1. Subsoil -Tends to be yellowish in color due to the accumulation of iron, aluminum, humic compounds, and clay leached down from the A and E horizons. -It can be rich in nutrients in areas where rainwater leached nutrients from the topsoil | 40 | |
| 9837135536 | C Horizon | 1. Weathered parent material -Partially broken down inorganic minerals | 41 | |
| 9837135537 | Soil Facts | -Makes up the outermost layer of our planet -Topsoil is the most productive soil layer -Has varying amounts of organic matter, minerals, and nutrients -Natural processes can take more than 500 years to form 1 inch of topsoil -Is formed from the erosion of rocks and decaying plants and animal matter -Different-sized mineral particles, such as sand, silt, and clay, give soil its texture -Fungi and bacteria help break down organic matter in the soil -5 to 10 tons of animal life can live in an acre of soil -Earthworms digest organic matter, recycle nutrients, and make the surface soil richer -Mice, moles, shrews, and many invertebrates dig burrows that help aerate the soil | 42 | |
| 9837135538 | Roots | -Plant roots and lichens break up rocks that become part of new soil -Roots loosen the soil, allowing oxygen to penetrate. This benefits organisms living in the soil -Roots hold soil together and help prevent erosion | 43 | |
| 9837135539 | Soil Food Web | -The most abundant energy resource in the soil is detritus or dead plant and animal matter -The primary consumers in soil are often microbes such as bacteria and fungi that consume detritus -These fast-growing microbes act as a food base for many other soil organisms such as mites and nematodes -Underground herbivores can also get energy directly by grazing on or parasitizing plant roots | 44 | |
| 9837135558 | Soil Food Web Diagram |  | 45 | |
| 9837135540 | Plant Nutrient Pathways | -Includes Carbon, Nitrogen, Calcium, Phosphorus, Supplementary nutrients, Aquatic systems, and Decomposers | 46 | |
| 9837135541 | Carbon | Input: Through photosynthesis Output: Respiration by plants, animals, and microorganisms | 47 | |
| 9837135542 | Nitrogen | Input: Lightning, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, atmospheric deposition, and fertilizer Output: Leaching out from the soil and by-products of microbial activities in the soil. Lost as nitrogen, nitrous oxide, and ammonia | 48 | |
| 9837135543 | Calcium and Phosphorus | Input: Weathering of rocks Output: Leaching from the soil | 49 | |
| 9837135544 | Supplementary nutrients | Input: Airborne particles, aerosols, and wet-dry deposition Output: Surface flow of water and soil erosion | 50 | |
| 9837135545 | Aquatic Systems | Input: Drainage water, detritus, sediment, and precipitation. Decay of anadromous fish Output: Flooding and loss of estuaries and riparian areas | 51 | |
| 9837135546 | Decomposers | Input: Transform organic nutrients into mineral forms through mineralization Output: Mineralization of nutrients in ash after a fire. Fires also result in volatilization and airborne particulates | 52 | |
| 9837135547 | Organic Fertilizers | -Three common forms: animal manure, green manure, and compost -Improves soil texture, adds organic nitrogen, and stimulates beneficial bacteria and fungi -Disadvantages: high cost to transport(growing crops is separated from raising animals); mechanization has replaced many animals with machinery -Improves water-holding capacity of soil -Helps to prevent erosion -Not immediately available to plants. Before the plants can use them , they must be broken down by soil microorganisms into simpler, inorganic molecules and ions -As microorganisms in the soil break down the organic material into an inorganic soluble form, a slow release of nutrients is provided over a longer period of time | 53 | |
| 9837135548 | Inorganic Fertilizers | -Does not add humus to the soil, resulting in less ability to hold water and support living organisms(earthworms, beneficial bacteria and fungi, etc) -Lowers oxygen content of the soil thereby keeping fertilizer from being taken up efficiently -Depending on the fertilizer used, it may supply only a limited number of nutrients(usually nitrogen and phosphorus) -Subject to leaching, which occurs when the fertilizers are washed by rain or irrigation water down below the level of the plant roots. Nitrogen is particularly susceptible to leaching -Heavy application can dry out(desiccate) or "burn" seedlings and young plants due to the presense of chemical salts -Heavy application can build up toxic concentrations of salts in the soil and create chemical imbalances -Releases nitrous oxide(N2O), a greenhouse gas | 54 | |
| 9837135549 | Igneous Rock | -Are formed either underground or above ground -Underground, they are formed when the melted rock, called magma, deep within the Earth becomes trapped in small pockets. As these pockets of magma cool slowly underground, the magma becomes igneous rocks -Are also formed when volcanoes erupt, causing the magma to rise above the Earth's surface -When magma appears above the Earth, it is called lava. They are formed as the lava cools above ground | 55 | |
| 9837135550 | Metamorphic Rock | -Are formed by being deep beneath the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above -Can be formed by tectonic processes, such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction, and distortion -They are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth's interior | 56 | |
| 9837135551 | Sedimentary Rock | -Are formed as particles of sediment buildup. Pressure squeezes the sediment into layered solids in a process known as lithification -Are laid down in layers called beds or strata -Contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals -Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment that have occurred over time -Can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains | 57 | |
| 9837135559 | Rock Cycle |  | 58 | |
| 9837135552 | Dust Bowl | -Occurred during the 1930s in the midwestern US -Caused by extensive plowing of the praries and resulted in the loss of natural grasses that rooted the soil -Drought and winds that occurred blew most of the topsoil away | 59 | |
| 9837135553 | Landslides and Mudslides | -Occurs when masses of rock, earth, or debris moves down a slope -Caused by disturbances in the natural stability of the slope -Can occur after heavy rains, earthquakes, or volcanic eruptions -Areas susceptible include: -Where wildfires or construction have destroyed vegetation -Where landslides and mudslides have occurred before -Steep slopes -channels along a stream or river -areas where surface runoff is directed | 60 | |
| 9837135554 | Soil Erosion Act | -Established the U.S. Conservation Service -Mandates the protection of the nation's soil reserves -Deals with soil erosion problems, carries out soil surveys, and does research on soil salinity | 61 | |
| 9837135555 | Soil and Water Conservation Act | -Created soil and water conservation programs -Periodically evaluates the condition of U.S. soil, water, and related resources | 62 |
