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| 150106396 | Edwin Chadwick | an inspector for the Poor Law of 1834, a Benthamite; from his collected reports, concluded that disease was related to filthy conditions (believed in the miasmatic theory); his report became basis of Britain's first public health law | |
| 150106397 | Germ theory | theory formed by Pasteur which replaced the miasmatic theory; stated that specific diseases are caused by specific living organisms | |
| 150106398 | Georges Haussmann | employed by Napoleon III to fix up Paris; reforms included widening boulevards, tearing down slums, building low-income housing, creating open spaces, streetcars, overhauling the public health system; gave Napoleon III prestige because he was caring for his people and Paris became a model for other cities | |
| 150106399 | Joseph Lister | grasped connection between aerial bacteria and wound infection; developed the antiseptic principle, that a chemical disinfectant applied to wounds would destroy bacteria, which led to dramatic improvements in sanitation in hospitals and surgery | |
| 150106400 | Louis Pasteur | hired by brewers to study fermentation; found that it depended on the growth of living organisms, which could be suppressed by heating them (pasteurization); implication was that specific diseases are caused by specific living organisms (the germ theory) | |
| 150106401 | miasmatic theory | belief that people got sick from bad smells; dominant theory until formation of the germ theory by Louis Pasteur | |
| 150106402 | Robert Koch | a German country doctor who developed pure cultures of harmful bacteria and described their life cycles; led to researchers identifying many organisms responsible for various diseases and led to the development of several medicines | |
| 150106404 | Illegitimacy explosion | period between 1750 and 1850 when one in three births occurred out of wedlock due to the decline of community controls | |
| 150106405 | Emily Pankhurst | leader of feminist movements, which were mostly about the vote; movements were unsuccessful initially, but earlier movements set up opportunity for change later | |
| 150106406 | Mr., Mrs., and Baby | a book by Gustave Droz; said that marriage should be based on love and that older men shouldn't marry younger women because it would be more of a mentorship; was very popular and illustrated changing values about marriage in the 19th century | |
| 150106407 | My Secret Life | anonymous 11-volume book about a man obsessed with sex; was important because it took place during the Victorian age and it showed that middle class values were often hypocritical | |
| 150106409 | Alfred Wallace | had heard of Darwin's work and was forming theories of his own; Darwin didn't want to cause controversy but at the same time didn't want someone else to get the credit for his own work; they published a short article together, but Darwin did end up getting the credit | |
| 150106410 | Auguste Comte | leading social scientist; associated with positivism, which states that human beings progress through 3 though states: the theological, metaphysical, and scientific | |
| 150106411 | Charles Darwin | his father wanted him to be a doctor, but he was unable to stand blood and then tried to become a minister; received an offer as a science officer on a ship going to South America (the Beagle); in the Galapagos Islands, discovered many isolated and unique species and developed the theory of natural selection and later published it in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection | |
| 150106412 | Dmitri Mendeleev | created the periodic law and the periodic table | |
| 150106413 | Herbert Spencer | saw human race as driven forward to greater specialization and progress by economic struggle; coined the term "survival of the fittest"; a leading Social Darwinist | |
| 150106414 | Jean Baptiste Lamarck | a leading thinker in evolution before Darwin; his theory was that acquired characteristics were passed on through generations | |
| 150106415 | Michael Faraday | studied electromagnetism and invented the first dynamo (generator), which led to the developments of the telegraph, electric motor, electric light, and electric streetcar | |
| 150106416 | On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection | published by Darwin in 1859, many years after his original formation of the idea of natural selection; did not want to publish earlier because he did not want to cause controversy, but found he couldn't wait any longer when he found out that Wallace had already started forming the same theory; made it clear that Darwin had already fully fleshed out his idea, which is why he receives the credit for the formation of the theory | |
| 150106417 | Organic chemistry | the study of compounds of carbon; a branch of chemistry; an example of how science was becoming specialized into specific branches; led to practical developments like synthetics | |
| 150106418 | Thermodynamics | investigated relationship between heat and mechanical energy; example of how science was becoming specialized into specific branches; led to the development of the law of conservation of energy; also the development of new kinds of engines | |
| 150106419 | Realism | an ideology that wanted to portray life exactly as it is, with all its blemishes; realists believed that if certain characters were put into a certain environment, then the outcome would be inevitable; reflected growing prestige of science | |
| 150106420 | Social Darwinists | believed progress was defined by biology and moral standards and that the strong would survive and the weak would be eliminated; basically, took Darwin's theory of natural selection and applied it to social science, but Darwin did not approve of it | |
| 150106421 | Charles Albert | supported goals of nationalism in 1848; granted Sardinia a constitution; abdicated in favor of his son | |
| 150106422 | Crimean War | fought over the question of who would get power if the Ottoman Empire collapsed; Russia wanted areas of the Ottoman Empire, but Britain was opposed; when Russia occupied part of Romania, Britain declared war and got several allies; consequences included Austria's political isolation, the beginning of nursing, made Russia realize they needed to modernize; it was also the first war that was covered by newspaper correspondents and gained a reputation as the most mismanaged war | |
| 150106423 | Napoleon III | voted president of France after the Second Republic was established in 1848; governed so that it seemed like people had a say in government, but really it was authoritarian; greatest achievement was improving the economy; was unsuccessful in dealing with foreign policy, especially in handling events in Italy | |
| 150106424 | Count Cavour | chief minister of Sardinia; goal was to unite north and possibly central Italy; used diplomatic strategy of realpolitik; succeeded when people of central Italy voted to join Sardinia | |
| 150106425 | Giuseppe Garibaldi | a superpatriot, wanted to unite all of Italy; went to Sicily and took on any army of 20,000 and won; prepared to attack Rome, but Cavour sent an army to stop him because it would be a bad thing to take Rome because they needed the French on their side; the two armies met south of Rome, Garibaldi turned over his army, and all of Italy excepting Venetia and Rome were unified | |
| 150106426 | Giuseppe Mazzini | wanted a centralized democratic republic in Italy based on universal male suffrage and the will of the people; temporarily drove Pope Pius IX from Rome | |
| 150106427 | Pope Pius IX | initially seemed to support unification of Italy under Gioberti's plan; later was driven from Rome by Mazzini and returned a different man; published the Syllabus of Errors and uniting Italy under Sardinia-Piedmont seemed to become a better plan | |
| 150106428 | Realpolitik | a new kind of diplomacy; the idea that diplomacy should be very practical and not affected by sentiment; was kind of scientific | |
| 150106429 | Syllabus of Errors | written by Pope Pius IX after he was returned to Rome after being driven out by Mazzini; denounced rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty | |
| 150106430 | Vicenzo Gioberti | a Catholic priest who called for a federation of existing states under the presidency of a progressive pope; seemed to be a possibility because Pope Pius IX seemed at first to support nationalist policies | |
| 150106431 | Victor Emmanuel | Sardinian monarch; retained liberal constitution of Charles Albert; was looked to as the leader of a liberal, progressive state ideally suited to achieve goal of Italian national unification | |
| 150106432 | Villafranca | city where, after abandoning his Sardinian ally, Napoleon III, disturbed by the battles he was witnessing, made a compromise peace with the Austrians; led to Cavour's resignation | |
| 150106433 | Austro-Prussian War | also called the Seven Weeks' War; Bismarck convinced that Prussia needed to expel Austria from German affairs; knew war with Austria needed to be localized; neutralized Russia and France, knew Italy would support Prussia, Britain was isolated; lasted only seven weeks; Austria given generous terms, German Confederation dissolved, Austria withdrew from German affairs | |
| 150106434 | Battle of Koniggratz | also known as the Battle of Sadowa; pretty much the only battle fought in the Austro-Prussian War; Prussians had everything planned out and decisively defeated Austria | |
| 150106435 | Count Otto von Bismarck | master of politics; a Junker; agenda was to unify Germany under Prussian leadership; had the Prussian bureaucracy keep collecting taxes to fund the military to oppose Austria; after defeating Austria in the Austro-Prussian War, gave them generous peace terms and was able to unify northern Germany in the North German Confederation; governed with a federal constitution; was able to unify all of Germany after the Franco-Prussian War; after unifying Germany was concerned with keeping the government stable | |
| 150106436 | Ems telegrams | telegrams sent to William I when he was at Ems asking him to promise that he would end the candidacy of his relation for king of Spain and that a Hohenzollern would never become a king of Spain; agreed to the first but not to the second; Bismarck published the telegrams in French and German newspapers and made it seem like the other side was being antagonistic to each respective side | |
| 150106437 | Franco-Prussian War | Bismarck realized that patriotic war with France would drive the south German states into his arms; fought over the apparent issue about whether a distant relative of William I might become a king of Spain; had support of south Germany as soon as war began; Germans decisively defeated French; Germany unified and becomes an empire | |
| 150106438 | William I | became king of Prussia in 1861; wanted to make army reforms, like doubling the army, reducing local militias, and modernizing weapons, which required more taxes; opposed by Junkers; almost resigned but instead appointed Bismarck | |
| 150106439 | Zollverein | customs union; included all German states except Austria; became a crucial factor in Austro-Prussian rivalry | |
| 150106440 | Alexander II | wanted to modernize Russia; freed serfs in 1861 and gave villages (mirs) collective responsibility; also created zemstvos, rewrote law system, reduced censorship, increased education | |
| 150106441 | Bloody Sunday massacre | when a large crowd convened in St. Petersburg to present a petition to the tsar without knowing he wasn't there; troops suddenly opened fire, which led to revolution all over Russia | |
| 150106442 | Father Gapon | a trade-unionist priest who led the protest in St. Petersburg that began the Revolution of 1905 | |
| 150106443 | Fundamental Laws | constitution issued by Nicolas II; tsar retained great powers and Duma could pass laws but tsar had absolute veto; middle-class unhappy with it | |
| 150106444 | Nicolas II | became tsar of Russia; was not particularly strong, which led to growing discontent in the country | |
| 150106445 | October Manifesto | issued by tsar Nicolas II, which ended the Revolution of 1905; granted full civil rights and promised a popularly elected duma (parliament) | |
| 150106446 | Peter Stolypin | last capable minister of Nicolas II; pushed through reforms designed to break down collective ownership of land and encourage enterprising peasants | |
| 150106447 | Revolution of 1905 | military disaster abroad (with Japan) led to political upheaval at home; business and professional classes wanted a liberal and republic regime; massive crowd converged peacefully on the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg without knowing that tsar Nicolas II had fled the city; troops suddenly opened fire, which led to revolution all over Russia | |
| 150106448 | Sergei Witte | appointed minister of finance; built railroads rapidly (like the trans-Siberian railroad) and got capital from other countries (esp. France); as a result Russia began industrializing and catching up to other countries, making Germans fearful that they were going to outdo every other country | |
| 150106449 | Zemstvo | were local elected assemblies, but votes were weighted unevenly, and liberals' hopes that it would lead to an elected national parliament were disappointed | |
| 150106450 | Doctrine of Infallibility | statement by Pope Pious IX that claimed that every official statement by the pope was correct | |
| 150106451 | "dropping of the pilot" | phrase that refers to Bismarck's forced resignation | |
| 150106452 | Kulturkampf | "struggle for culture;" attack on Catholic Church by Bismarck because he saw it as the biggest problem for keeping Germany unified; was not a good policy because nationalist feeling was stronger; was abandoned after Bismarck saw an opportunity for unification after the 1873 economic crash | |
| 150106453 | Social Democratic party | leading socialist party in Germany; outlawed by Bismarck, but it didn't disband; after it was re-allowed by William II became more popular because they started to identify more with the state and concentrated on reform through the system | |
| 150106454 | William II | opposed Bismarck's attempts to outlaw the Social Democratic party; wanted to let it wither out on its own; forced Bismarck to resign | |
| 150106455 | Paris Commune | formed by frustrated Parisians who wanted to govern Paris as a republic; seceded from France after monarchists won a majority in the National Assembly | |
| 150106456 | Jules Ferry | helped to established free compulsory education in France; teachers could carry ideology of patriotic republicanism and win loyalty of young citizens to the state; lessened the power of the church, which had been the dominant center for education | |
| 150106457 | Leon Gambetta | preached equal opportunity; at one point forced the autocratic president to resign, which had a negative effect on the Third Republic because it implied that there was more power in the legislative branch than the executive | |
| 150106458 | Thiers | leader of the National Assembly that ordered the army into Paris to crush the Commune; did this even though he was a liberal, because he was also a nationalist | |
| 150106459 | Alfred Dreyfus | Jewish captain in the French army, falsely accused and convicted of treason whose case split the country; the entire affair indicated weakness in French politics and brought out anti-Semitism | |
| 150106460 | Esterhazy | member of the army's general staff who had really committed the crime that Dreyfus had been accused of; was proven by Picquart to be the real criminal; was sent off with orders for him to be deliberately put in dangerous situations so that he could be punished without the matter becoming public | |
| 150106461 | Herzl | was shocked to see the anti-Semitism revealed in the Dreyfus affair and concluded that the Jews needed a homeland of their own; his movement was called Zionism and eventually led to the creation of Israel | |
| 150106462 | Picquart | bothered by the Dreyfus Affair because he couldn't come up with a logical motive; started digging for evidence and found information of another member of the army's general staff, Esterhazy; used his handwriting and Austrian connections to prove that it was really him who had committed treason, showed the evidence to superiors and cleared Dreyfus, and then gave the information to Zola | |
| 150106463 | Zola | a realist writer who obtained information on Esterhazy from Piquart; wrote the pamphlet J'Accuse and made the information public, revealing how the entire affair indicated weakness in French politics | |
| 150106464 | Reform Act of 1832 | had given vote to most middle-class males, but workers were still left out, which led to Chartism | |
| 150106465 | Charles Stewart Parnell | became leader of Irish home rule movement; thought the 100 Irish seats in Parliament could be used as leverage if the conservatives and liberals in Parliament were split fairly evenly | |
| 150106466 | David Lloyd-George | had come from a very poor background; was in favor of welfare programs; supported the People's Budget and was happy when it was turned down by the House of Lords because it led to the Parliamentary Act | |
| 150106467 | On Liberty | 1859; written by John Stuart Mill (a prodigy, could read and knew Latin and Greek by age 4); saw the inherent danger in a democracy as the fact that the majority would be ruling over the minority; concluded that the solution was to let people, as individuals, should be able to do anything they want as long as they don't hurt anyone else | |
| 150106468 | Parliamentary Act | passed in 1911; said that the House of Lords could only veto a law twice, and if the Commons approved it a third time, then it became law | |
| 150106469 | People's Budget | designed to increased spending on welfare services by raising taxes on the rich; was opposed by Lords; when supported by the Irish, led to the Parliamentary Act | |
| 150106470 | William Gladstone | leader of the liberal party in Parliament; when he became prime minister, disestablished the Anglican church in Ireland and used confiscated land to fund Irish education; split his party when he saw home rule as the only option for Ireland; fell from power and conservatives ruled for the next 20 years; became prime minister again, briefly, and his bill was passed in the Commons but not with the Lords | |
| 150106471 | Ausgleich | the dual monarchy established in Austria-Hungary; Hungary allowed home rule, but the two states were joined by a shared monarch and ministers | |
| 150106472 | Francis Joseph | Austrian emperor that tried to centralize the state and Germanize the language and culture of the empire | |
| 150106473 | Bernstein | wrote Evolutionary Socialism; stated that Marx's predictions had proved false because revolution wasn't necessary and reform could be sought through the legal system; went in accordance with revisionist ideas | |
| 150106474 | Fabian Socialists | tiny socialist party in England, which was the least Marxist country in Europe; included HG Wells and George Bernard Shaw; linked with British unions to form the Labour Party, which eventually replaced the Liberals | |
| 150106475 | First International Working Men's Association | founded by Marx; goal was to overcome move to nationalism by making workers see that their goals were all the same; fell apart after many were scared away by Marx's enthusiastic support of the revolutionary violence that surrounded the Paris Commune | |
| 150106476 | May Day | May 1; annual one-day strike; basically a socialist holiday that tried to strengthen the concept that socialists internationally were all united, but it was all just an illusion | |
| 150106477 | Revisionism | an effort by various socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect the realities of the time by trying to work through the system instead of holding on to the concept of inevitable worldwide revolution; under this ideology, workers gained some benefits and weren't as radical as before | |
| 150106478 | Second International | another attempt at an international workers' union after Marx's death; had representatives of different parties who met to talk about how they could work together; established an illusionary feeling of international unity among socialists |
