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| 6486891548 | German Philosopher Friedrich Nietzshe (1844-1900): | -Untimely Mediations (1873) • argued that ever since classical Athens, the west had overemphasized rationality and stifled the authentic passions and animal instincts that drive human activity and true creativity. -On the Genealogy of Morals (1887) • claimed that Christianity embodied a "slave morality" that glorified weakness, envy, and mediocrity. "God is dead" metaphorically murdered by lackadaisical modern Christians who no longer really believed in him. -He believed that reason, progress, and respectability were outworn social and psychological constructs that suffocated self-realization and excellence. -He warned that W. society was entering a period of nihilism - the philosophical idea that human life is entirely without meaning, truth, or purpose. -The only hope for the individual was to accept the meaninglessness of human existence and then make that very meaninglessness a source of self-defined personal integrity and hence liberation. -rise of existentialism in 1920s | 0 | |
| 6486891549 | French Philosophy Professor Henri Berson (1859-1941): | -Argued that immediate experience and intuition were as important as rational and scientific thinking for understanding reality. | 1 | |
| 6486891550 | Sigmund Freud: | -human behavior in turn was the result of rational calculation - of "thinking" -he concluded that human behavior was basically irrational, governed by the unconscious, a sort of mental reservoir that contained vital instinctual drives and powerful memories. Though the unconscious profoundly influenced people's behavior, it was unknowable to the conscious mind, leaving people unaware of the source of meaning of their actions. -id, ego, and superego -neurosis, or mental illness, resulted when the three structures were out of balance -"talking cure" in which neurotic patients lay back on a couch and shared their inter most thoughts with the psychoanalyst was an attempt to resolve such unconscious tensions and resort the rational ego to its predominant role -Civilization and Its Discontents (1930) • argued that civilization was possible only when individuals renounced their irrational instincts in order to live peaceably in groups. | 2 | |
| 6486891551 | Einstein's theory of relativity: | -Albert Einstein's theory that time and space are relative to the observer and that only the speed of light remains constant. -Analogy: if a woman in the middle of a moving car got up and walked forward to the door, she had gone, relative to the train, half car length. But relative to an observer on the embankment she had gone farther. To Einstein this meant that time and distance were not natural universals but depended on the position and motion of the observer | 3 | |
| 6486891552 | Max Planck (1858-1947): | -showed in the 1900 that sub atomic energy is admitted and in even little spurts, which Planck called quanta, and not in a steady stream, as previously believed. Planks discovery called into question the old sharp distinction between matter and energy: the implication was that matter and energy might be different forms of the same thing. The view of atoms as the stable basic building blocks of nature, with a different kind of unbreakable atom for each of the ninety-two chemical elements, was badly shaken | 4 | |
| 6486891553 | Marie and Pierre Curie: | -Polish born physicist and French her husband, discovered that radium constantly emits subatomic particles and thus does not have a constant atomic weight. | 5 | |
| 6486891554 | Claude Monet: | -colorful and atmospheric painting of farmland haystacks - a French painter who used a impressionism called "super-realism," capture overall impression of the thing they were painting -impressionists looked to the world around them for subject matter, turning their backs on traditional themes such as battles, religious scenes and wealthy elites. -capturing a fleeting moment of color and light, in often blurry and quickly painted images, was far more important than making a heavily detailed, precise rendering of an actual object. | 6 | |
| 6486891555 | Edgar Degas: | -pastel drawings of ballerinas exemplified the way impressionists moved toward abstraction -impressionists looked to the world around them for subject matter, turning their backs on traditional themes such as battles, religious scenes and wealthy elites. -capturing a fleeting moment of color and light, in often blurry and quickly painted images, was far more important than making a heavily detailed, precise rendering of an actual object. | 7 | |
| 6486891556 | Pablo Picasso (1881-1973): | -established cubism - a highly analytical approach to art concentrated on a complex geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled overlapping planes that exemplified the ongoing trend toward abstract, nonrepresentational art. | 8 | |
| 6486891557 | Vincent Van Gogh: | -built on impressionist motifs of color and light but added a deep psychological element to their pictures, reflecting the attempt to search within the self and reveal (or "express") deep inner feelings on the canvas. - Dutch post impressionist artist. Painted "the starry night" 1889. Mentally ill in later life. Cut off his own ear. Influential in the world of painting, very famous | 9 | |
| 6486891558 | John Maynard Keynes: | -many brits agreed with the analysis of the French economic who eloquently denounced the treaty of Versailles and his book the Economic Consequences of the Peace 1919. According to him astronomical reparations and harsh economic measures would impoverished Germany, encourage Bolshevism, and increase economic hardships in all countries. Only a complete revision of the treaty could save Germany - and Europe. His attack and gendered much public discussion and became very influential. It created sympathy for Germany in the English - speaking world, which often paralyzed English and American leaders in their relations with Germany over the next two decades. | 10 | |
| 6486891559 | Popular Front Policies in France: | -in 1921 France signed a mutual defense pact with Poland and associated itself closely with the so-called little entente, and allegiance that Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia against defeated and bitter Hungary. -Popular Front was a short-lived New Deal-inspired alliance in France led by Leon Blum that encouraged the union movement and launched a far-reaching program of social reform -Frightened by the growing strength of the Fascists at home and abroad, the Communists, Socialists, and Radicals formed an alliance, the Popular Front, for the national elections of Many 1936 -In the next few months, Blum's Popular Front government made the first and only real attempt to deal with the social and economic problems of the 1930s in France -Inspired by Roosevelt's New Deal, it encouraged the union movement and launched a far-reaching program of social reform, complete with paid vacations and a forty-hour workweek; supported by workers and the lower middle-class, these measures were quickly sabotaged by rapid inflation and accusations of revolution from Fascists and frightened conservatives -wealthy people sneaked their money out of the country, labor unrest grew, and France entered a severe financial crisis; Blum was forced to announce a "breathing spell" in social reform | 11 | |
| 6486891560 | National Government in Britain: | -the British we're willing to accept a moratorium, but the French were not. Led By their tough minded prime minister, Raymond Poincare (1860-1934), they decided they had to either call Germany's Bluff or see the entire peace settlement dissolved to France's great disadvantage. If the Germans refused to pay reparations, France would use occupation to paralyze Germany and force it to accept the Treaty of Versailles. So, despite strong British protests, in early January 1923 French and Belgian armies moved out of the Rhineland and began to occupy the Ruhr district, the heartland of industrial Germany, Creating the most serious international crisis of the 1920s. The state provided unemployment benefits and supplemented the payments with subsidizing housing, medical aid, and increased old-age pensions; these and other measures kept living standards from seriously declining, helped moderate class tensions, and pointed the way toward the welfare state Britain would establish after World War II -Relative social harmony was accompanied by the rise of the Labour Party as a determined champion of the working class and of greater social equality; committed to the kind of moderate revisionist socialism that had emerged before World War I, the Labour Party replaced the Liberal Party as the main opposition to the Conservatives; this shift reflected the decline of old liberal ideals of competitive capitalism, limited government control, and individual responsibility -in 1924 and from 1929 to 1931, the Labour Party under Ramsay MacDonald governed the country with the support of the smaller Liberal Party; yet Labour moved toward socialism gradually and democratically, so as not to antagonize the middle classes -The British Conservatives showed the same compromising spirit on social issues -in 1922 Britain granted southern, Catholic, Ireland full autonomy after a bitter guerrilla war, thereby removing a key source of prewar friction -Developments in both international relations and the domestic policies of the leading democracies across western Europe gave cause for optimism in the late 1920s -In Britain, MacDonald's Labour government and then, after 1931, the Conservative-dominated coalition government followed orthodox economic theory -The budget was balanced, spending was tightly controlled, and unemployed workers received barely enough welfare to live; nevertheless, the economy recovered considerably after 1932; by 1937 total production was about 20 percent higher than in 1929; in fact, for Britain the years after 1932 were actually somewhat better than the 1920s had been, the opposite of the situation in the US and France -After going off the gold standard in 1931 and establishing protective tariffs in 1932, Britain concentrated increasingly on the national, rather than the international, market -The old export industries, such as automobiles and electrical appliances, grew in response to British home demands; moreover, low interest rates encouraged a housing boom -by the end of the decade, there were highly visible differences between the old, depressed industrial areas of the north and the new, growing areas of the south. | 12 | |
| 6486891561 | Popular Fronts in France and Spain: | -Popular Front was a short-lived New Deal-inspired alliance in France led by Leon Blum that encouraged the union movement and launched a far-reaching program of social reform -Frightened by the growing strength of the Fascists at home and abroad, the Communists, Socialists, and Radicals formed an alliance, the Popular Front, for the national elections of Many 1936 -Their clear victory reflected the trend toward polarization; the number of Communists in the parliament jumped drastically from 10 to 72, while the Socialists, led by Blum, became the strongest party in France, with 146 seats; the Radicals, who were actually quite moderate, slipped badly, and the conservatives lost ground to the far right -Reform measures frightened the wealthy, conservatives, and Fascists, who sneaked their money out of the country, and France entered a severe financial crisis -Political dissension in France was encouraged by the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), during which authoritarian Fascist rebels overthrew the democratically elected republic government; French Communists demanded that the government support the Spanish republicans, while many French conservatives would gladly have joined Hitler and -Mussolini in aiding the Spanish Fascists; extremism grew, and France itself was within sight of civil war Blum was forced to resign in June 1937, and the Popular front quickly collapsed | 13 | |
| 6486891562 | Werner Heisenberg: | -1927 formulated the "uncertain principle" which postulates that nature itself is ultimately unknowable and unpredictable. -Everything was "relative" that is, deponent on the observers frame of reference. | 14 | |
| 6486891563 | Dadaism: | -an artistic movement of the 1920s and 1930s that attacked all accepted standards of art and behavior and delighted in outrageous conduct. -the war had showed once and for all that life was meaningless, the Dadaists argued, so art should be meaningless as well. -tried to shock their audiences with what they called "anti-art" works and public performances that were insulting and entirely nonsensical. -Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa with a mustache -"art in its execution and direction is dependent on the time in which it lives, and artists are creatures of their epoch" | 15 | |
| 6486891564 | Bauhaus: | -a German interdisciplinary school of fine and applied arts that brought together many leading modern architects, designers, and theatrical innovators. | 16 | |
| 6486891565 | Modernism: | -a label given to the artistic and cultural movements of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which were typified by radical experimentation that challenged traditional form of artistic expression. | 17 | |
| 6486891566 | The Compositions of Igor Stravinsky: | -the ballet The right of spring by Russian composer practically caused a riot when it was first performed in Paris in 1913. The combination of pulsating rhythms and dissonant sounds from the orchestra pit with earthly representations of love making by the strangely dressed dancers on the stage shock audiences accustomed to traditional ballet. | 18 | |
| 6486891567 | The Compositions of Arnold Schoenberg: | -the music notes in a given piece were no longer united and organized by key, instead they were independent and unrelated. His twelve-tone music of the 1920s arranged all 12 notes of the scale in an abstract mathematical pattern or "tone row". This pattern sounded like no pattern at all to the ordinary listener and could be detected only by a highly trained eye studying the musical score. Accustomed to the harmonies of classical and romantic music, audience is generally resisted atonal music. Only after world war two did it begin to win acceptance. | 19 | |
| 6486891568 | Franz Kafka 1883-1924: | the Czech writer portrayed an incomprehensible, alienated world. His novels The Trail 1925 and the castle 1926 are stories about helpless individuals crushed by inexplicable hostile forces, as is his first novella the metamorphosis 1915, in which the main character turns into a giant insect. -The German-Jewish man died young, For 41, and was spared the horror of seeing the world of his nightmares materialize in the Nazi State. In these and other works authors between the wars used new literary techniques and dark imagery to capture the anxiety of the age. | 20 | |
| 6486891569 | James Joyce 1882-1941: | -the most famous and perhaps most experimental stream of consciousness novel is Ulysses (1922) by Irish novelist. Into an account of a single day in the life of an ordinary man, He weaves an extended ironic parallel between the aimless wanderings of his hero through the streets and pubs of Dublin and the adventures of Homer's hero Ulysses on his way home from Troy. Ulysses was surely one of the most disturbing novels of its generation. -Abandoning any sense of a conventional plot; breaking the rules of grammar; and blending foreign words, puns, bits of knowledge, And scraps of memory together and be well during confusion, Ulysses is intended to mirror modern life: A gigantic little impossible to unravel. Since he included frank descriptions of the main characters sexual thoughts and encounters, the novel was considered obscene in great Britain and the United States and was banned there until the 1930s. | 21 | |
| 6486891570 | Virginia Woolf: | -created a novel made up of a series of such monologues in which she tried to capture the inner voice in prose. In this and other stories, Wolf for trade characters whose ideas and emotions from different periods of their lives bubble up as randomly as from a patient on that psychoanalyst's couch -Jacobs Room (1922) -novelist that used the stream of consciousness technique, relying on inter monologues to explore the human psyche. | 22 | |
| 6486891571 | Jean-Paul Sartre: | -"existence precedes essence" -there are no god given, timeless truth outside or independent of individual existence. Only after they are born do people struggle to define their essence, entirely on their own. -"man is condemned to be free" -because life is meaningless, existentialists believe that individuals are forced to create their own meaning and define themselves through their actions . -to escape is to live in "bad faith" -to live authentically, individuals must become "engaged" and choose their own actions in full awareness of their responsibility for their own behavior -"being in the world" | 23 | |
| 6486891572 | Radio: | -like film, radio became a full-blown mass medium in the 1920s; experimental radio sets were first available in the 1880s; the work of Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) around 1900 and the development of the vacuum tube in 1904 made possible primitive transmissions of speech and music; but the first major public broadcasts of news and special events occurred only in 1920, in Great Britain and the United States -Every major country quickly established national broadcasting networks; in the United States such networks were privately owned and were financed by advertising, but in Europe the typical pattern was direct control by the government; in Great Britain, Parliament set up an independent public corporation, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), supported by licensing fees -Whatever the institutional framework, radio enjoyed a meteoric growth in popularity; by the late 1930s more than three out of every four households in both democratic Great Britain and dictatorial Germany had at least one radio -Like the movies, radio was well suited for political propaganda and manipulation; dictators such as Hitler and Italy's Benito Mussolini controlled the airwaves and could reach enormous national audiences with their dramatic speeches; in democratic countries, politicians such as American presidents Franklin Roosevelt and British prime minister Stanley Baldwin effectively used informal "fireside chats" to bolster their popularity | 24 | |
| 6486891573 | Logical Positivism: | -a philosophy that sees meaning in only those beliefs that can be empirically proven, and that therefore rejects most of the concerns of traditional philosophy from the existence of god to the meaning of happiness, as nonsense. | 25 | |
| 6486891574 | Existentialism: | -a philosophy that stresses the meaninglessness of existence and the importance of the individual in searching for moral values in an uncertain world. | 26 | |
| 6486891575 | Leni Riefenstahl: | -In Nazi Germany, a young and immensely talented woman filmed marker directed a masterpiece of documentary propagandas, Triumph of the will, based on the 19334 Nazi Party rally at Nuremberg. She combined stunning aerial photography with mass processions of young Nazi fanatics and images of joyful crowds welcoming Adolf Hitler. Her film, released in 1935, was a brilliant yet chilling documentary of the rise of Nazism. | 27 | |
| 6486891576 | The Little Entente: | -Since 1890 France had looked to Russia as a powerful ally against Germany. But with Russia hostile and communist, and with Britain and the United States unwilling to make any firm commitments, France turned to the newly formed states of central Europe for diplomatic support -In 1921 France signed a mutual defense pact with Poland and associated itself closely with the so-called Little Entente, an alliance that joined Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia against defeated and bitter Hungary | 28 | |
| 6486891577 | The Ruhr occupation | -The French were unwilling to accept a German moratorium; led by tough minded prime minister Raymond Poincare, they decided they had to either call Germany's bluff or see the entire peace settlement dissolve to France's great disadvantage. So, despite strong British protests, in early January 1923 French and Belgian armies moved out of the Rhineland and began to occupy the Ruhr district, the heartland of industrial Germany, creating the most serious international crisis of the 1920s. -Strengthened by a wave of German patriotism, the German government ordered the people of the Ruhr to stop working and offer passive resistance to the occupation. The coal mines and steel mills of the Ruhr fell silent, leaving 10 percent of Germany's population out of work. The French responding by sealing off the Ruhr and the Rhineland from the rest of Germany, letting in only enough food to prevent starvation -German opinion was incensed when the french sent over 40,000 troops from North and West Africa to control the territory. German propaganda labeled these troops the "black shame," warning that African soldiers were savages, eager to brutalize civilians and assault German women -By the summer of 1923 France and Germany were engaged in a test of wills. French armies could not collect reparations from striking workers at gunpoint, but the occupation was paralyzing Germany and its economy. To support the striking workers and their employers, the German government began to print money to pay its bills, causing runaway inflation. Prices soared as German money rapidly lost all value. -In August 1923, Gustav Stresemann assumed leadership of the German government. He called off passive resistance in the Ruhr and in October agreed in principle to pay reparations, but asked for a re-examination of Germany's ability to pay; Poincare accepted |  | 29 |
| 6486891578 | Gustav Stresemann (1878-1929): | -assumed leadership of the government -he tried compromise. He called off passive resistance in the Ruhr and in October agreed in principle to pay reparations but asked for a re-examination of Germany's ability to pay. Poincare accepted. His hardline had become unpopular in France, and it was hated in Britain and in the United States. | 30 | |
| 6486891579 | The Dawes Plan 1924: | - was accepted by France, Germany, And Britain. -Germany's yearly reparations were reduced and linked to the level of German economic output. Germany would also receive large loans from the United states in order to pay reparations to France and Britain, thus enabling those countries to repay the large war debts they owed the United States | 31 | |
| 6486891580 | The Locarno Pact | -A political settlement accompanied the economic accords. In 1925 the leaders or Europe signed a number of agreements at Locarno, Switzerland. Germany and France solemnly pledged to accept their common border, and both Britain and Italy agreed to fight either France or Germany if one invaded the other. Stresemann reluctantly agreed to settle boundary disputes with Poland and Czechoslovakia by peaceful means, although he did not agree on permanent borders to Germany's east. In response France reaffirmed its pledge of military aid to those countries if Germany attacked them. The refusal to settle Germany's eastern borders angered the Poles, and though the "spirit of Locarno" lent some open to those seeking international stability, political tensions deepened in central Europe. | 32 | |
| 6486891581 | Kellogg-Briand Pact: | -signed in 1928 by 15 countries -Initiated by French prime minister Aristide Briand and Us secretary of state Frank B. Kellogg. The signing states agreed to "renounce war as an instrument of international policy" and to settle international disputes peacefully. The pact made no provisions for action in case war actually occurred and could not prevent the arrival of the second world war in 1939. In the late 1920s, however it fostered a cautious optimism and encouraged the hope that the United States would accept its responsibilities as a great world power by contributing to European stability. | 33 | |
| 6486891582 | The Labour Party under Ramsay MacDonald: | -Relative social harmony was accompanied by the rise of the Labour Party as a determined champion of the working class and of greater social equality; committed to the kind of moderate revisionist socialism that had emerged before World War I, the Labour Party replaced the Liberal Party as the main opposition to the Conservatives; this shift reflected the decline of old liberal ideals of competitive capitalism, limited government control, and individual responsibility -in 1924 and from 1929 to 1931, the Labour Party under Ramsay MacDonald governed the country with the support of the smaller Liberal Party; yet Labour moved toward socialism gradually and democratically, so as not to antagonize the middle classes | 34 | |
| 6486891583 | The Great Depression: | -a worldwide economic depression from 1929 through 1939, unique in its severity and duration and with slow and uneven recovery. -Germany owed 33 billion dollars to the allies because of the treaty of Versailles. However, their economy was awful and there was no way for them to get France the money. They called for the Dawes Plan a war reparations agreement that reduced Germany's yearly payments, made payment dependent on economic prosperity, and granted large U.S. loans to promote recovery. Britain accepted however France did not. Because Germany did not have the money they began to print more paper money to pay them back but the over production made the value of the German currency literally nothing. There was a hyperinflation and so much money on the streets that children played with it and mothers used it for fires. -Just like Woodrow Wilson said at the Treaty of Versailles the huge amount of money that Germany was forced to pay was ridiculous and would never be met. Ultimately the crash of Germany's economy spread to the crash of the world economy. | 35 | |
| 6486891584 | The New Deal: | -When the full force of the financial crisis struck Europe in the summer of 1931 and boomeranged back to the United States, people's worst fears were realized. Banks failed; unemployment soared. Industrial production fell by around 50 percent. In these dire circumstances, Franklin Delano Roosevelt won a landslide presidential victory in 1932 with grand but vague promises of a "New Deal for the forgotten man." Roosevelt's goal was to reform capitalism in order to preserve it. Though he rejected socialism and government ownership of industry, he advocated forceful government intervention in the economy an instituted a broad range of government-supported social programs designed to stimulate the economy and provide jobs -Innovative federal programs promoted agricultural recovery. Roosevelt took the US off the gold standard and devalued the dollar in an effort to raise American prices and rescue farmers. The Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 also aimed at raising prices-and thus farm income-by limiting production. -The most ambitious attempt to control and plan the economy was the National Recovery Administration (NRA). Intended to reduce competition among industries by setting minimum and prices, the NRA broke with the cherished American tradition of free competition. Though participation was voluntary, the NRA aroused conflicts among business people, consumers, and bureaucrats and never worked well. The program was abandoned when declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1935. -Roosevelt and his advisors then attacked the key problem of mass unemployment. The federal government accepted the responsibility of employing as many people as financially possible. New agencies like the Works Progress Administration were created to undertake a vast range of projects, such as constructing public buildings, bridges, and highways. The WPA was enormously popular. -In 1935 the US government also established a national social security system w9th old-age pensions and unemployment benefits. The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 gave union organizers the green light by declaring collective bargaining to be the policy of the United States. -Programs like the WPA were part of the New Deal's fundamental commitment to use the federal government to provide relief for all Americans, which marked a profound shift from the traditional stress on family support and community responsibility. -The New Deal was only partly successful in responding to the Great Depression. At the height of the recovery in May 1937, 7 million workers were still unemployed. The New Deal never pulled the United States out of the depression; it took WWII to do that. | 36 | |
| 6486891585 | Leon Blum: | -frightened by the growing strength of the Fascists at home and abroad, the communists, socialists, and Radicals formed an alliance the Popular Front - for the national elections of May 1936. Their clear victory reflected the trend toward polarization. The number of Communists in the parliament jumped dramatically from 10 to 72, while the Socialists, led by Leon Blum, became the strongest party in France, with 146 seats. The Radicals - who were actually quite moderate - slipped badly, and the conservatives lost ground to the far right. -In the next few months, Blum's Popular Front government made the first and only real attempt to deal with social and economic problems of the 1930s in France. Inspired by Roosevelt's New Deal, it encouraged the union movement and launched a far-reaching program of social reform, complete with paid vacations and forty-hour workweek. Supported by workers and the lower middle class, these measures were quickly sabotaged by rapid inflation and accusations of retaliation from Fascists and frightened conservatives. Wealthy people sneaked their money out of the country, labor unrest grew, and France entered a severe financial crisis. Blum was forced to announce "breathing spell" in social reform. | 37 | |
| 6486891586 | The Spanish Civil War: | -Political dissension in France was encouraged, during which authoritarian Fascist rebels overthrew the democratically elected republican government. French Communists demanded that the government support the Spanish republicans, while many French conservatives would gladly have joined Hitler and Mussolini in aiding the Spanish fascists. Extremism grew, and France itself was within sight of civil war. Blum was forced to resign in June 1937, and the Popular Front quickly collapsed. An anxious and divided France drifted aimlessly once again, preoccupied by Hitler and German rearmament. | 38 |
