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| 3693605238 | Language | system of spoken words used by people for mutual comprehension | 0 | |
| 3693613481 | Language family | a group of languages descended from a common ancestors; 30-100 language families relationships are recognized by similarities in vocabulary and grammar | 1 | |
| 3693632184 | Protolanguage | the common ancestor of a language families - Proto-Indo-Euro; languages evolve from common ancestors | 2 | |
| 3693646137 | Sound shift | a slight change in a word across languages back towards its origin; related languages have similar constants; Greek, Latin have similar vocabulary and forms. William Jones 1700s; Constants soften over time; Vater to Vader to Father | 3 | |
| 3693669953 | Backward reconstruction | track sound shifts backward by how constants harden | 4 | |
| 3693674153 | Deep reconstruction | using vocabulary to track down an extinct language | 5 | |
| 3693692114 | Nostratic language | so old that is proceeds prodo-indo-euro; found in 1960s; used stable words like arm, feet, hands, sun, and moon to see similarities in words; they were hunters/gathers so no domestic animals; no word for dog; suggested they were trying to domesticate wolves; oldest dog bones are 14,000 yrs old; parent of languages from many countries | 6 | |
| 3693718272 | Language divergence | emerge when speakers are fragmented, first, through subtle changes in vocabulary, then into discrete tongues | 7 | |
| 3693732452 | Language converge | languages can collapse into one, when spatial interaction is consistent | 8 | |
| 3693740746 | Language extinction | all speakers die, or when speakers choose to use another language | 9 | |
| 3693753220 | Hearth of fire | using the Language divergence, Language converge, and Language extinction linguist can locate this; proto-indo-euro diffused Europe over time | 10 | |
| 3694612456 | Celtic | suggests that newer languages arrived from east | 11 | |
| 3694616190 | Conquest theory | early speakers of proto-indo-euro (Kurgans) spread through east to west on horse back conquering earlier inhabitants | 12 | |
| 3694637526 | Renfrew's agricultural theory | proto-indo-euro speakers from Anatolia diffused from proto-indo-euro west with the diffusion of agriculture; every generation (25 yrs) the agricultural frontier moves 11 miles west taking 1500 yrs for agriculture to spread through Europe | 13 | |
| 3694685442 | Disposal hypothesis | proto-indo-euro spread from Anatolia eastward into southeast Asia, then into Russia, Ukraine - then into Balkans; language is spread when people occupy new territory | 14 | |
| 3694712499 | Adoption vs. eviction | non native speakers will gradually abandon their language when a new one is brought into the influence sphere of another language; if a language is used for commerce, law personally status- it may be seen as necessary to adopt | 15 | |
| 3694774289 | Dispersion of speakers or acquisition of speakers | spatial diffusion when move to a new area - relocation diffusion; when the language is adopted by new speakers, expansion diffusion has occurred along with acculturation- assimilation | 16 | |
| 3694805441 | Romance languages | French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, Portuguese Latin once dominated Not mutually comprehendible, but share much in common | 17 | |
| 3694822986 | Germanic languages | English, German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish show expansion of people from north Europe into west and south English is very low key Germanic - reflect migration of Normans; essential character of Germany remains Latin words added | 18 | |
| 3694890424 | Slavic languages | Russian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Ukrainian developed as Slovak people migrated from Ukraine into eastern Europe over alienated the Latin tongues except one area; Romanian either survived the migration or was reintroduced later | 19 | |
| 3694927567 | Subsaharan African languages | Niger Congo family 95% of Subsaharan Africans speak variant Swahili- blended with Arabic Nilo- Saharan - few million speakers divided into 6 branches included Chari Nile, fur, Songhai- Saharan- these can be further divided Khoisan- oldest language in Africa, included glottal clicks | 20 | |
| 3695083414 | Afro-Asiatic languages | spoken throughout north Africa and southwest includes Arabic and Hebrew Arabic is the official language of 2 dozen counties Most muslims need this because the Quran is in Arabic | 21 | |
| 3695120533 | Altaic-Uralic languages | originally thought to be related because of similar word formation and structure Uralic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary carried from Ural Mtns. Altaic- between Turkey and Mongolia; Uzbek, Uighor, Bashkir, Kazakh, Azerbaijani Turkish- once written in Arabic, now Latin; many suppressed when Soviet existed | 22 | |
| 3695218797 | Sino-Tibetan languages | China and southwest Asia Mandaran, Wu, Cantonese Austro-Thai and Tibeto- Birmese use of ideograms- symbols that represent concepts or ideas illiteracy is high in China because of language complexity | 23 | |
| 3695246446 | speech community | numbers who speak a community does not imply linguistic uniformity | 24 | |
| 3695253062 | Standard languages | accepted norms of syntax, vocabulary, pronunciation | 25 | |
| 3695346232 | Dialect | may become standard through association with powerful people or speech community | 26 | |
| 3695397844 | Standard language | language of capital language that government speaks, history is written in, and textbooks talk differently to family and friends populations have 2- national and formal | 27 | |
| 3695417958 | Social dialect | denotes social class, educational level people with high education speak in standard English | 28 | |
| 3695430839 | Geographic and regional dialect- | dialects with extent, recognized at different scales | 29 | |
| 3695455003 | Pidgin | (language is a permeable layer) a amalgamation of languages simplified to language A an language B mixed **a pidgin is not a mother tongue, a second language highly reduced vocabulary, simplified structure a pidgin can become nativized; becomes creole; grammar can be ?; vocabulary comes from parent languages | 30 | |
| 3695504066 | Lingua Franca | pidgin used widely among different groups of people for trade and commerce Arabic during expansion of Islam English in India Swahili in east Africa (a mixture of Arabic, Persian, and Bantu) Complex vocabulary, millions of speakers, but most Africans also speak a native tongue first | 31 | |
| 3695541160 | Official languages | in countries where more than 1 language is spoken Multilingual states- use of more than 1 language Angola- use of Portuguese Nigeria- use of English Monolingual- use of 1 language (Japan, Uruguay, Iceland, Denmark) | 32 | |
| 3695568251 | English | used as lingua franca increasingly in popular culture not used in day-to-day activities - resist switching Rising language of commerce - dominance in science, technology, business - but 200 yrs. ago French was predicted to become dominate commerce language | 33 | |
| 3695887615 | Toponyms | language on the land - records of past inhabitants in England - cities end in -chester- a form of Latin- castra meaning camp names reflect past inhabitants ing (farm or people) ham (meadow) Birmingham Sudan - land of blacks, Cairo- victorious, Sahara- wasteland | 34 | |
| 3695913676 | Ten Toponyms | Descriptive- Rocky Mtns. Associative- Mill Valley, CA Commemorative- San Fransisco- CA Commendatory- Paradise Valley, AZ Incidents- Battle Creek, MI Possession- Johnson City, TX Folk- Plains, GA Manufactured- Truth and consequences, NM Mistakes- Laskers, NC Shift- Lancaster, PA | 35 | |
| 3695990325 | Shift toponym | colonists just rename homeland, honor monarchs Virginia, Charleston, Carolina New England, New France, New Holland Washington, Jackson, Lincoln Amerindian names modified by French | 36 | |
| 3696002875 | Rules for toponyms | no matter the origin, places names typically have a similar structure 2 parts- generic, specific Generic- classifying - River, Island, Hill Specific- modifying or particular- Big, Little Rock Long Island, River Rouge | 37 | |
| 3696036241 | Reasons changing toponyms | after decolonized after revolution the moralization on an event commodification | 38 | |
| 3696048405 | After decolonization | Africa- upper volta - Burkina faso Gold Coast- Ghana Nyasaland- Malawi change to establish independence | 39 | |
| 3696065193 | After a revolution | Belgian Congo to Zaire back to Congo after revolution | 40 | |
| 3696074885 | Moralization on an event | Place names can reflect important events or changes in cultures or behavior Civil Rights Movements - schools named after Robert E. Lee now named to MLK in towns with a higher population of African Americans | 41 | |
| 3696089052 | Commodification toponyms | like FedEx field, Coors field, or Bowl games like the Tostitos Bowl. trying to lure customers by associating names with places Disneyland Paris, Disneyland Japan | 42 |
